Study Design
What is the key difference?
Between-subjects design VS. Within-subjects design
Expected answers:
Between-Subjects Design:
Each participant is assigned to only one condition of the experiment.
You compare different groups of people.
Useful when you want to avoid carryover effects (like learning or fatigue).
Example: Group A gets Drug A, Group B gets Drug B.
Key trait: Different people in each condition
Within-Subjects Design:
Each participant experiences all conditions of the experiment.
You compare the same participants across different conditions.
Useful for controlling individual differences (each person acts as their own control).
Example: Everyone tries both Drug A and Drug B at different times.
Key trait: Same people in every condition
Act like a child who is lying about eating cookies.
What cues might reveal the lie?
e.g.
Mom: "Did you eat the cookies I told you not to touch?"
Child: "Uh… no! I didn’t eat them. Maybe the dog did? I was just… in my room. Yeah. I didn’t even go near the kitchen. Promise!"
Cues:
Hesitation/Too much details/Blame-shifting/Inconsistent eye contact/Body language/Change in tone/Speech errors
What is the key difference?
Independent variable VS. Dependent variable
Independent Variable (IV) = What the researcher changes or manipulates
The “cause” in the experimen
Dependent Variable (DV): What the researcher measures
The “effect” or outcome of the IV (It depends on the IV)
Based on the abstract, name one potential limitation in this study.
Abstract:
Predictors of friendship stability from individual attributes and dyadic similarities were assessed using cross-classified multilevel analyses in this 6- to 8-month longitudinal study of 10-year-old US (White, Black, Asian, other; n=477, 50% girls), Chinese (n=467, 59% girls), and Indonesian (Sudanese, Javanese, other; n=419, 45% girls) children with complete participation and reciprocated baseline friendships. Across countries, individual attributes of social preference, popularity, and academic achievement and dyadic social preference similarity positively predicted friendship stability. Dyadic similarity of popularity, academic achievement, and aggression respectively predicted friendship stabilities of US, Chinese, and Indonesian children. Both individual attributes and dyadic similarity predicted friendship stability, with results that varied across countries consistent with attributes' reputational salience.
Limitation 1: The study did not assess other potentially important individual or dyadic predictors of friendship stability, such as victimization, depression, or anxiety.
Limitation 2: The quality of children's friendships was not measured, which may explain why certain attributes predict friendship stability.
Limitation 3: The study only covered a short 6–8 month period, making it impossible to determine the true duration of friendships.
Limitation 4: The study did not control for socioeconomic differences across countries, which may confound cross-cultural comparisons.
Say “My hand did it, not me!” in a 3-year-old voice.
What cognitive stage is this?
This response reflects Piaget’s Preoperational Stage of cognitive development — specifically around ages 2 to 7.
Preoperational Stage:
Egocentrism: The child sees the world only from their own perspective.
Lack of Logical Causality: They struggle with understanding cause and effect logically.
Animistic Thinking: Children in this stage may attribute life or intention to non-living things or body parts.
Poor Understanding of Responsibility: They haven’t yet developed a clear sense of personal agency or moral responsibility. So they create a “third party” (the hand) to escape blame.
Define random assignment
Explain why it is important in experimental design.
Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to different groups (e.g., experimental vs. control) in a study by chance, rather than by choice or characteristics (Every participant has an equal chance of being placed in any condition.)
Why important:
1. Controls for Confounding Variables
2. Increases Internal Validity
3. Reduces Bias: Prevents systematic bias in how participants are assigned.
4. Foundation of a True Experiment: Without random assignment, a study becomes quasi-experimental and less able to support causal claims.
Explain the concept “Pragmatics”, and give examples!
Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how language is used in context—especially how meaning depends not just on words, but on who is speaking, to whom, where, and why.
It’s about how we use language to do things (like requesting, promising, or joking), and how listeners figure out what we really mean, not just what we literally say.
e.g.
Example 1: Indirect Request
Literal meaning: “Do you know what time it is?”
Pragmatic meaning: You’re actually asking “Can you tell me the time?”
Example 2: Sarcasm
Literal meaning: “Wow, great job!”
Pragmatic meaning: Said after someone messes up → It’s a criticism, not praise
Example 3: Code-Switching in Bilinguals
A child may speak English at school but use Mandarin at home, adjusting tone and expressions depending on the social context and relationship with the listener.
Example 4: Responding to Questions with Evasion
Q: “Did you break the vase?”
A: “Well, it was already cracked…”
The speaker is avoiding a direct answer, and the listener has to infer the truth
Pick one person in your group to act out a short scene (Simiao and Cara will show this person the scene). Watch closely how the child behaves when the caregiver leaves and returns. Then, the rest of the team members must write down:
What attachment style is being demonstrated?
One behavioral clue that supports your answer.
Attachment Style: Secure
Clue: The child is distressed when the parent leaves, but is comforted upon return and able to resume exploration.
Cross-sectional VS. Longitudinal
What is 1 advantage and 1 disadvantage for each?
Cross-Sectional Study: Compares different groups of people at one point in time (e.g., 5-year-olds vs. 10-year-olds vs. 15-year-olds).
Advantage: Fast and cost-effective
→ Data can be collected quickly since all groups are studied at once.
Disadvantage: Cohort effects
→ Differences may be due to generational or cultural differences, not age or development.
Longitudinal Study: Follows the same group of participants over a long period of time.
Advantage:Tracks real developmental changes
→ Can show how individuals change over time (stronger evidence for cause-effect).
Disadvantage:Time-consuming and costly
→ Can take years, and participants may drop out (attrition), affecting results.