Logic
If a, then b
a
Therefore, b
Modus Ponens
According to this philosophical system, you are morally obligated to always do what is best for yourself.
Egoism
Bentham's utilitarianism is based on his belief that mankind has two sovereign masters. What are they?
Pleasure and Pain
According to Kant, the most important consideration in morality is:
The Motive of the Actor
If your idea has insane consequences, it is a bad idea
Your idea has insane consequences
Therefore, your idea is a bad idea
Reductio ad Absurdum
not b
Therefore, not a
Modus Tollens
According to this philosophical system, you are morally obligated to act according to the values of the society you live in, and so is everyone else, even if those values are different.
Cultural Relativism
In order to make a moral choice, according to Bentham, you must consider every possible action in a given situation and choose the one that:
Generates an outcome with the highest possible ratio of pleasure to pain.
According to Kant, acts that are based on inclination, that are heteronomous, or that are guided by a hypothetical imperative are, at best, morally neutral. A truly moral act is one that is:
Taken out of a duty to a categorical imperative autonomously chosen by a human being.
Something that is valuable in itself vs. something that has value because of what it can get you. Answer should sound like "This Thing vs. This Other Thing"
Intrinsic value vs. Instrumental value
If a, then b
If b, then c
Therefore, if a, then c
Hypothetical Syllogism
According to this philosophical system, all statements about morality are simply emotional statements of disapproval or approval. Because moral statements are always statements about our own preferences cannot be wrong, moral disagreement is impossible.
Emotivism
John Stuart Mill believes in maximizing utility in the long term. However, unlike Bentham, Mill centers his idea of utility not on pleasure and pain but on maximizing this:
Freedom, free expression humanity
The Categorical Imperative - Kant's perfect moral rule for always doing the right thing, is framed in two ways that Kant sees as fitting together to make a perfect whole. The two formulations are:
1. Always act according to universalizable maxims
2. Always treat people as ends rather than mere means
The belief that the only moral principle is to constantly attempt to achieve the good life by pursuing pleasure.
Hedonism
If a, then b
b
Therefore, a
Affirming the consequent
According to this philosophical theory, moral knowledge is impossible because there are no moral features of the world. Moral statements are therefore meaningless.
Error Theory
Human Rights
One objection to Kant is that maybe people are not really free or rational. Kant's response is to bring in more vocabulary words. What distinction does he make to defend himself against the idea that people are not free?
Sensible vs. Intelligible
The belief that moral truth can be found by examining ourselves, making inferences about our purpose as provided by a designer, and then acting exclusively in accordance with those purposes.
Naturalism, or Natural Law Theory
If a, then b
a
Therefore, a
Begging the question
According to this moral theory, moral behavior is impossible because moral behavior requires people to act altruistically - to put other people ahead of themselves - and people are not capable of that.
Psychological Egoism
The arguments about "old age discounts" on health care, exploding Ford Pintos, and 3-nights-a-week rules for guests at St. Agnes College all get to a common problem with Utilitarianism. What is that problem?
Finding a common unit to measure happiness with
Kant argued that, while technically cruelty to animals is not wrong because animals have no claim to rights, it is still bad to be cruel to animals because people who do that might become cruel to people also. However, Kant shouldn't make this arguement because:
It is a consequentialist argument.
The belief that it is morally ok to do something terrible if the terrible thing you do was not your intent, which was to do something good.
The Doctrine of Double Effect