A & P
How do simple and stratified epithelia differ?
Simple epithelium has one cell layer; stratified epithelium has two or more
Two types of immune response?
Nonspecific and fast acting
What is pathophysiology?
The study of how disease processes alter normal body structure and function, producing clinical findings.
What additional information does a white blood cell differential provide beyond a total WBC count?
It identifies the types and proportions of white blood cells, such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.
A Gram stain shows Gram-positive cocci in clusters. Which genus does this suggest?
Staphylococcus.
What microscopic features identify the three muscle tissue types?
Skeletal muscle has long, striated, multinucleated fibers. Cardiac muscle has branched, striated cells joined by intercalated discs. Smooth muscle has spindle-shaped cells without striations.
Four types of pathogens?
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites
What is the difference between a symptom and a sign?
A symptom is experienced and reported by the patient, such as pain. A sign is an objective finding, such as a measured fever.
What do MCV and RDW tell you about red blood cells?
MCV describes their average size. RDW describes how much their sizes vary.
A patient develops a urinary tract infection involving an indwelling catheter. Which Gram-positive cocci from the slides are associated with urinary infections involving a Foley catheter?
Enterococcus species, particularly E. faecalis and E. faecium.
What are the main components of plasma?
Water, proteins, and dissolved substances such as electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, gases, and wastes.
Categories of Cytokines
Interleukins, tumor necrosis factor, colony simulating factor, interferons
What is metaplasia, and how does it differ from dysplasia?
Metaplasia is replacement of one mature cell type by another. Dysplasia is disordered cell growth and maturation.
How does a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP) differ from a basic metabolic panel (BMP)?
A CMP includes the BMP measurements plus additional tests such as liver enzymes, bilirubin, albumin, and calcium.
A newborn develops sepsis after exposure to bacteria in the maternal genital tract during birth. Which organism is a key concern?
Streptococcus agalactiae, or group B streptococcus.
What route does lymph take from a lymphatic capillary back to the bloodstream?
Lymphatic capillary → collecting vessel → afferent lymphatic vessel → lymph node → efferent lymphatic vessel → lymphatic trunk → lymphatic duct → venous circulation.
What is adaptive immunity ?
Response to foreign substance, humoral (antibody) and cell mediated
Which cells predominate early in acute inflammation, and which become increasingly important afterward?
Neutrophils predominate early; macrophages become increasingly important afterward.
Why is serum sodium useful for assessing water balance?
Serum sodium is a concentration. It reflects how sodium is diluted by water, so an abnormal value often points to a water-balance problem.
A patient with pneumonia has Gram-positive, lancet-shaped diplococci in a sputum specimen. What is the likely organism, and what helps it evade phagocytosis?
Streptococcus pneumoniae. Its polysaccharide capsule helps it resist phagocytosis.
A stretched bladder has flattened surface cells. What type of epithelium is this, and what happens when the bladder relaxes?
It is transitional epithelium, or urothelium. When the bladder relaxes, its surface cells become more rounded or dome-shaped.
What are the hypersensitivity responses
•Cell or Ab mediated
–Types I-III are Ab-mediated
–Type IV is cell-mediated
What is granulation tissue?
Temporary, highly vascular repair tissue containing new blood vessels, fibroblasts, inflammatory cells, and extracellular matrix.
Why can an abnormal potassium level affect the heart?
The potassium gradient across cell membranes helps establish the resting membrane potential. Changes in extracellular potassium can disrupt electrical activity.
A patient has recurrent UTIs and struvite stones. Which organism is suggested, and how does it promote stone formation?
Proteus mirabilis. Its urease raises urine pH, promoting struvite stones.