Categories
Semantic Memory, Language
Language (cont'd)
Decision Making & Problem Solving
Syllogisms & Reasoning
100
Describe Prototype and Exemplar approaches to categorization, and give an example.
Prototype: Building an "typical" concept based on average characteristics (features) of category members. Exemplar: Selection of one specific standard category member. Ex: Prototype fish (line drawing with basic features) Exemplar fish (Trout)
100
Define Anaphoric Inference.
We are able to read and interpret pronouns in speech and writing and relate them to their intended use. Ex: "Mike went to the pool to swim some laps. After his workout, he went to his psychology class. The professor asked him to summarize the chapter that he'd assigned the class to read."
100
Explain the difference between phonemes and morphemes.
Phonemes: smallest segment that, if changed, affects meaning. Morphemes:smallest meaningful units of words. Prefixes, roots, suffixes.
100
Explain Gestalt's idea of "Insight".
"Aha!" experience. Sudden realization vs. a gradual path towards a solution.
100
Define antecedent and consequent.
Antecedent: "p". Precedes the "then" part of an argument. Consequent: "q". Occurs as a result of the "if" part.
200
Name and describe the 3 levels of Rosch's categories.
Superordinate: Vague, general categories Basic: More specific, typically named when asked Subordinate: Detailed, distinct name
200
Describe spreading activation.
Cue of related words by a singular key word. Ex: "car" Spread to: truck, ambulance, van, bus, etc.
200
Define some common speech errors.
Word substitution: wrong word. Ex: "Now that daylight savings time is over, it gets light at 4:30 pm." Spoonerism: generates two new words by swapping morphemes. Ex: "hissing a mystery lecture" Perseveration: repeating phonemes. Ex: "A silly sistake" Blend: a combination of two words Ex: "To explain clearfully" (Carefully + clearly)
200
Give some differrences between Gestalt approaches to Reproductive Thinking and Productive Thinking.
Reproductive Thinking: Repeating old behaviors applied to problem solving. (Rote memory) Productive Thinking: Thinking outside the box, applying new solutions to new problems.
200
Compare Inductive Reasoning and Deductive Reasoning.
Inductive reasoning involves a probable conclusion (specific to general), whereas deductive reasoning provides a sure conclusion (general to specific). Structures Inductive: All turtles I've seen are green. Therefore, all turtles are green. (Allows for new information to alter conclusion). Deductive: All turtles have shells. Myrtle is a turtle. Therefore, Myrtle has a shell.
300
Explain the differences between categories and concepts, and give an example of each.
A concept is a mental representation (prototype) of an object. A category is a group of items similar to one particular thing.
300
Define word ambiguity and sentence ambiguity.
Word Ambiguity: Word/(s) in a sentence have more than one meaning. Noun & Verb meaning Sentence Ambiguity: Sentences can be read in more than one way. Ex: "The spy saw the man with the binoculars."
300
What are the three levels of analysis of speech?
Phonology (study of production/perception of language) Syntax (study of structure of sentences/rules/order) Semantics (study of word meaning)
300
Describe the sleep-study related to insight.
Three groups: Day wakefulness, Nocturnal wakefulness, Nocturnal sleep. 1/4/9 problems given to the groups: at the end of a productive day, in the morning after 8 hours of no sleep (in lab), and in the morning after 8 hours of sleep (in lab). Results: Sleep group outperformed both other groups (approximately 21, 21, 68 respectively).
300
Describe the structure of conditional vs categorical syllogisms, and explain how to DISprove a conditional syllogism.
Categorical: All A are B. All B are C. Therefore, all A are C. Conditional: If p, then q. P. Therefore, q. To disprove the conditional syllogism: Affirm (support) the antecedent (p), and deny (disprove) the consequent (q).
400
What does the "sentence verification" study measure, and why is it relevant?
Speed of response was measured to see if response to typical examples is faster, equal to, or slower than atypical examples. Results: Faster response to typical examples than atypical examples.
400
Describe the structure of the semantic heirarchical model as well as the results of the studies conducted on it.
Supersets (description of the category) Each superset has Properties (defining characteristics) Expresses cognitive economy (each property is assigned the minimum amount of times at the highest superset possible to eliminate repetition) Results: Superset-superset jumping is quicker than property-superset jumping. Multiple jumps raises reaction time.
400
What are the five aspects of linguistics used by all human languages?
Semanticity (conveying meaning) Arbitrariness (no specific connection between a symbol and meaning) Flexibility & Naming (change over time of meanings) Displacement (past, present, future tense) Productivity (can make new words)
400
Define Mental Set and Functional Fixedness. Also, describe the study done to examine how it is difficult to overcome functional fixedness.
Mental Set: the way of seeing things in one particular way instead of other equally plausible ways. Functional Fixedness: seeing objects only in terms of their intended use. Ex: room + 1 chair + 2 strings + screwdriver. Results: 60% solved w/o hint. >20% solved after hint given.
400
What was the group responsible for the film snippet we watched in class to examine the validity of an argument and the false logic used?
Monty Python.
500
Describe Labov's context-relevant experiment and results.
Experiment: Sheet with pictures of cups/bowls given (varying height:width ratios), asked to name as "cup" or "bowl". Repeated when asked to picture the cups/bowls filled with mashed potatoes.
500
"The old man the boat" is a (blank) type of sentence. Define this type of sentence and give another example.
Garden-path sentence. Ex: The man whistling tunes pianos. The government plans to raise taxes were defeated. The tomcat curled up on the cushion seemed friendly.
500
Describe how the context of speech was studied?
Participants were recorded in conversation in the waiting room adjacent to where the study took place. They were asked to identify the words broken down from the recordings (in their own voices). Results: only about 50% could identify their own words.
500
What are the conclusions we made in class as to the limitations of how experts solve problems?
Expertise is limited to field of study. Expertise provides a mental set to experts (limitation). Expertise is non-transferrable.
500
Describe a handful of the heuristics we covered in class.
Availability Representativeness Anchoring & Adjustment Simulation
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