Test 1 Review

Endocrine System

100

A neuroendocrine organ.

What is the hypothalamus?

200

all amino acid based hormones excluding the thyroid hormone; additionally, state two actions of this class of hormone

What are water-soluble hormones?

300

steroid hormones plus thyroid hormone; additionally, state two actions of this class of hormone 

What are lipid-soluble hormones?

400

cyclic AMP signaling mechanism (7 steps)

What is: 

1. hormone binds to receptor

2. receptor activates G protein

3. G protein activates/inhibits effector enzyme adenylate cyclase

4. adenylate cyclase convert ATP to cAMP

5. cAMP activates protein kinases that phosphorylate other proteins

6. phosphorylated proteins are either activated/inactivated

7. cAMP is degraded by phosphodiesterase, stopping cascade 

500

PIP2-Calcium signaling mechanism (4 steps)

What is:

1. hormone activate G protein activates phospholipase C

2. activated phospholipase C splits PIP2 into two second messengers, DAG and IP3

3. DAG activates protein kinases; IP3 causes Ca2+ release from intracellular storage

4. calcium ions act as second messengers: alter enzyme activity or bind to calmodulin, which activates enzymes to amplify cell response 

Glands and Hormones

100

the major form of TH is (hormone) but (hormone) is more active

T4, T3

200

(hormone) stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix and release (ion) to blood, as a response to (what)

parathyroid hormone, Ca2+, lowered Ca2+ levels in the blood

300

target cell specificity depends on (3 factors)

What is: blood levels of hormone, relative number of receptors on/in target cell, affinity for binding between receptor and hormone

400

three zones of the Adrenal Cortex; name a hormone produced in each and their classification

zona glomerulosa - mineralocorticoids - aldosterone

zona fasciculata - glucocorticoids - cortisol (influence metabolism)

zona reticularis - gonadocorticoids - testosterone, estrogen and progesterone 

500

(1) secretes two hormones (what are they?) but creates none (what does it do?)

(2) secretes releasing and inhibiting hormones to regulate hormone secretion (what are they? (6))

What is the posterior and anterior pituitary glands?

(1) oxytocin and ADH; storage

(2) growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, lutenizing hormone, prolactin

Blood

100

three functions of blood

distribution, regulation, protection

1. oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the intestine to all cells, transport metabolic waste and hormones

2. distribute heat around body, maintain pH, serve as a bicarbonate reserve, maintain fluid volume

3. excess blood loss, prevent infection

200

composition of blood

formed elements: blood cells (RBC, WBC, platelets)

hematocrit: 45% RBC, 55% plasma 

300

regulation of erythropoiesis by (hormone)

erythropoietin glycoprotein

400

three different causes of anemia; name at least one of each classification

insufficient number of cells: hemmoragic, hemolytic, aplastic

decreased hemoglobin content: iron deficiency, pernicious (deficiency of B12)

abnormal hemoglobin: thalassemias, sickle cell, polycythemia 

500

life cycle of a red blood cell - include phases and name at least three stages

hemocytoblast 

proerythroblast 

early erythroblast 

late erythroblast

normoblast

reticulocyte 

erythrocyte

WBC and Blood

100

WBC greater than (number) indicate a response to infection

11000

200

steps of hemostasis

vascular spasm

platelet plug formation

coagulation

300

difference between the two types of lymphocytes 

T-lymphocytes: act directly against virus infected cells (of the body) and destroy tumors

B-lymphocytes: give rise to plasma cells, which produce antibodies – which live in lymphatic tissues (the home for your immune systems)

400

classes of leukocytes and which WBC are in each classification (double points if you can tell me their percentages)

granulocytes: neutrophils (40-70%), basophils (0-1%), eosinophils (1-4%)

agranulocytes: lymphocytes (20-45%), monocytes (4-8%)

500

formation of leukocytes: at least one granulocyte pathway, and both agranulocyte pathway (double points if you can tell me all of them)

hemocytoblast to either myeloid stem cell or lymphoid stem cell

myeloid to either myeloblast or monoblast

lymphoid stem cell to lymphoblast 

myeloblast to promyelocyte to myelocyte to band cell to final stages

monoblast to promonocyte to monocyte 

lymphoblast to prolymphocyte to lymphocyte

Heart

100

name the four chambers of the heart, their valves, and the septums that separate them

–Four chambers

§Two superior atria

§Two inferior ventricles

–Interatrial septum: separates atria

§Fossa ovalis: remnant of foramen ovale of fetal heart

–Interventricular septum: separates ventricles

tricuspid valve for right AV 

bicuspid valve for left AV

200

difference between the two types of cells in the heart

–Contractile cells: responsible for contraction

–Pacemaker cells: noncontractile cells that spontaneously depolarize

•Initiate depolarization of entire heart

•Do not need nervous system stimulation, in contrast to skeletal muscle fibers

300

describe the sequence of excitation for the intrinsic conduction system of the heart

1.Sinoatrial node →

2.Atrioventricular node →

3.Atrioventricular bundle →

4.Right and left bundle branches →

5.Subendocardial conducting network (Purkinje fibers)

400

describe the circulation of blood within the heart: begin from the Left Atrium and end so that the blood is going into the rest of the body

Right side of the heart

• Blood enters the heart through two large veins, the inferior and superior vena cava, emptying oxygen-poor blood from the body into the right atrium.
• As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your right atrium into your right ventricle through the open tricuspid valve.
• When the ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the right atrium while the ventricle contracts.
• As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the pulmonic valve, into the pulmonary artery and to the lungs, where it is oxygenated. The oxygenated blood then returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins.

Left side of the heart

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• The pulmonary veins empty oxygen-rich blood from the lungs into the left atrium.
• As the atrium contracts, blood flows from your left atrium into your left ventricle through the open mitral valve.
• When the ventricle is full, the mitral valve shuts. This prevents blood from flowing backward into the atrium while the ventricle contracts.
• As the ventricle contracts, blood leaves the heart through the aortic valve, into the aorta and to the body.

500

describe the main features of an electrocardiogram

–P wave: depolarization of SA node and atria

–QRS complex: ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization

–T wave: ventricular repolarization

–P-R interval: beginning of atrial excitation to beginning of ventricular excitation

–S-T segment: entire ventricular myocardium depolarized

–Q-T interval: beginning of ventricular depolarization through ventricular repolarization