Modes of Reasoning
Modes of Reasoning
Modes of Reasoning
Modes of Reasoning
Branches of Philosophy
100
In this mode of logical inferences, the premises and conclusions are all categorical statements, that is, a statement about a category of things. For example: Premise: All A (men) are B (mortal) Premise: S is an A (Socrates is a man) Conclusion: Therefore, S is B (Socrates is mortal)
What is a Categorical Syllogism
100
When one distorts the others’ argument, warping it into an argument that is easier to rip apart. Ex: Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that. Person A has position X. Person B presents position Y (which is a distorted version of X). Person B attacks position Y. Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed.
What is the strawman fallacy
100
a fallacy in which a person uses the following pattern of "reasoning": Either claim X is true or claim Y is true (when X and Y could both be false). Claim Y is false. Therefore claim X is true. Ex: "Look, you are going to have to make up your mind. Either you decide that you can afford this stereo, or you decide you are going to do without music.”
What is false dilemma
100
Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources and explaining their positions on the issues we're discussing. If, however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with a famous name or by appealing to a supposed expert who really isn't much of an expert, we commit this fallacy. Ex: Tom Cruise citing himself as an expert on psychiatry.
What is Appeal to authority
100
The study of social values and political forms of government. What is the nature of justice? What is the most enlightened form of government?
What is Political and Social Philosophy
200
Roughly speaking, we are told that at least one of two statements is true; then we are told that it is not the former that is true; so we infer that it has to be the latter that is true. First, it is a syllogism--a three-step argument--and second, it contains a disjunction, which means simply an "or" statement. Here is an example: Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad. I will not choose soup. Therefore, I will choose salad.
What is Disjunctive Syllogism
200
A fallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence. "It is not uncommon for an arguer to draw a conclusion or generalization based on only a few instances of a phenomenon. In fact, a inferences are often drawn from a single piece of supporting data, an act that might be described as committing the fallacy of the lonely fact. Example from the clip we saw = Taking a small sample of women who like staying home, raising children, and not pursuing a career and saying that most women wish to stay home instead of working.
What is hasty generalization
200
In causal situations we are not always certain about what is causing what—in other words, what is the cause and what is the effect? For example, which are the causes and which are the effects in the following pairs of items? Why? Drug dependency and emotional difficulties, shyness and lack of confidence, and failure in school and personal problems.
What is Misidentification of the cause
200
Argues that a practice or a way of thinking is “better” because it has “always been done that way.” Although traditional beliefs often express some truth or wisdom, they are also often misguided or false, as in traditional beliefs about the inferiority of women or minority groups. Ex: We always eat Turkey on Thanksgiving. Therefore, we shouldn’t eat ham instead this year.
What is Appeal to tradition
200
The study of moral values and principles. How should we treat other people? Is there a “good life” for humans?
What is Ethics
300
A valid deductive form: denying the consequence. The first premise is a hypothetical statement (if/then), but the second premise focuses on the consequence (the then part of the statement). The conditions of the consequent are denied in the second premise. Ex: Premise: If A (Janice is a really good friend). Then B (She will remember my birthday.) Premise: Not B (Janice did not remember my birthday) Conclusion: Therefore not A (Janice does not really care about me)
What is Modus Tollens
300
This error in generalization involved the failure to take into account exceptions to the rule, “sweeping” the exceptions into the larger group. Ex: Vigorous exercise contributes to overall good health. Therefore vigorous exercise should be practiced by recent heart attack victims, people who are out of shape, and women who are about to give birth.
What is a sweeping generalization
300
This fallacy relies on the uncritical acceptance of other opinions because “everyone believes it.” People experience this all the time through peer pressure. Ex: Smoking cigarettes can’t be that bad for you if so many people are doing it and living relatively healthy lives.
What is Bandwagon
300
This family of fallacies appeals to various emotions to encourage or manipulate others into agreement. It includes appeal to pity (“If you don’t give me an A, I’ll lose my scholarship”); appeal to fear (“If you don’t support my plan, the enemy will be emboldened”); and appeal to flattery (“Someone as smart as you can surely see the merits of my argument”).
What is Appeal to emotion
300
The study of beauty, art, and taste. What is the nature of beauty? What is art?
What is Aesthetics
400
A valid deductive form: affirming the antecedent. The antecedent is the first part of a hypothetical statement: “If I have prepared thoroughly…” The second part of a hypothetical statement is known as the consequent, “Then I will do well.” In this kind of syllogism, a hypothetical statement is presented in the first premise, and the conditions of the antecedent are confirmed in the second premise.
What is Modus Ponens
400
This fallacy occurs when someone presents a causal relationship for which no real evidence exists. Superstitious beliefs, such as bad luck resulting from broken mirrors, walking under ladders, or encountering black cats usually fall into this category, as does dreaming the winning lottery numbers.
What is Questionable cause
400
This has been one of the most frequently used fallacies through the ages. Its effectiveness results from ignoring the issues of the argument and focusing instead on the personal qualities of the person making the opposing argument. Ex: Obama saying, “I don’t have a response to that. Sarah Palin isn’t much of an expert on nuclear.”
What is Appeal to personal attack / Ad hominem
400
Also known as “smoke screen” or “wild goose chase,” this fallacy is committed by introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the original issue being discussed. For example: I really don’t believe that grade inflation is a significant problem in education. Everybody wants to be liked, and teachers are just trying to get students to like them.
What is Red herring
400
The study of the construction of knowledge. What is truth? Can we ever really know anything?
What is Epistemology
500
A fallacy in which one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier. From the Latin, short for "after this, therefore because of this." Ex: This rock is warding off zombies. Ever since I picked up this rock, no zombies have attacked me.
What is Post hoc ergo propter hoc
500
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there's really not enough evidence for that assumption. The arguer asserts that one undesirable action will inevitably lead to a worse action, which will necessarily lead to a worse one still. Ex: I’ll end up living in a box for the rest of my life if I fail my Philosophy test.
What is slippery slope
500
If the weather is good, we can go to the beach. The weather is good. We can go to the beach.
What is Modus Ponens
500
No reptiles have fur. All snakes are reptiles. No snakes have fur
What is Categorical Syllogism
500
the study of the ultimate characteristics of reality or existence What is the nature of reality? Does God exist
What is Metaphysics
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