Renaissance
What intellectual movement emphasized human potential and achievement, and which two ancient civilizations inspired it?
Humanism; ancient Greece and Rome.
What specific Church fundraising practice did Martin Luther attack in his 95 Theses, and what misleading promise did its sellers make?
The sale of indulgences; sellers such as Johann Tetzel gave people the impression that paying money could secure salvation or release from punishment in purgatory.
Identify the three advantages that made Italy the birthplace of the Renaissance.
Thriving city-states, a wealthy merchant class, and the classical heritage of Greece and Rome.
What were Martin Luther’s THREE major teachings about salvation, religious authority, and believers?
Salvation comes through faith in God’s forgiveness; the Bible is the ultimate authority for Church teaching; and all believers with faith are spiritually equal and do not need priests to interpret Scripture for them.
In Raphael’s The School of Athens, what do Plato’s upward gesture and Aristotle’s outward gesture represent, and how does Raphael use perspective to emphasize them?
Plato points toward ideal or eternal truths; Aristotle gestures toward the physical world and observation. The perspective lines converge near the two philosophers, drawing attention to them.
Why did Henry VIII break from Rome? Name the woman whose marriage he wanted annulled, explain why the pope refused, and identify the 1534 law that changed English religious authority.
Henry wanted a male heir and an annulment from Catherine of Aragon. The pope refused partly because he did not want to anger Catherine’s nephew, Emperor Charles V. The Act of Supremacy (1534) made Henry head of the Church of England.
According to Machiavelli, what is the difference between fortune and virtù? Explain why a ruler relying only on fortune risks losing power, and identify the military force he preferred.
Fortune is luck or circumstances outside a ruler’s control; virtù is skill, courage, and strategic intelligence. Luck can change, so a ruler must adapt and prepare. Machiavelli preferred loyal citizen or subject troops over mercenaries.
What did the Peace of Augsburg allow German rulers to decide? Explain ONE important limitation of the agreement.
In 1555 it allowed rulers of states in the Holy Roman Empire to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism as the official religion. It did not establish full individual religious freedom or legally recognize Calvinism under the settlement.
Machiavelli and Erasmus both warned against flatterers and valued advisors. Explain one similarity in their advice about counselors and TWO major differences in their beliefs about how a ruler should govern.
Both valued honest, capable advisors and independent judgment. Machiavelli prioritized political stability and sometimes accepted deception or harsh actions, while Erasmus emphasized justice, mercy, moral character, and the public good. Machiavelli considered controlled fear safer than love when both were impossible; Erasmus preferred love over fear.
Explain TWO decisions made by the Council of Trent and ONE way the Catholic Reformation differed from Luther’s movement. Then explain how Calvin’s predestination differed from secular determinism.
The Council reaffirmed Catholic teachings such as the authority of Scripture and Church tradition and the importance of faith and good works, while also addressing abuses and improving clergy training. Catholic reform aimed to renew the Church while preserving Catholic doctrine and papal authority; Luther rejected papal authority. Calvin’s predestination concerns God’s decision about salvation, while secular determinism explains human events and choices through prior causes.