Stages of Development
At what stage does a child learn object permanence?
Sensorimotor Stage (birth–2 years)
What is the process of taking in new information into existing schemas called?
Assimilation: occurs when a child incorporates new experiences into existing schemas without changing the schema itself. like thinking a zebra is just a funny-looking horse.
What is the term for the support given by a more knowledgeable other?
Scaffolding: The temporary support provided by a teacher, peer, or parent to help a child accomplish a task until they can do it independently, after which the support is gradually removed.
What did Piaget (1956) use to test egocentrism?
He used a three-mountain model, where children were asked to select a picture of what a doll on the opposite side of the model could see.
Who emphasized the role of culture in development?
Vygotsky emphasized that culture and language shape how children think and learn, in contrast to Piaget, who placed little focus on cultural factors.
Which stage is characterized by egocentric thinking and inability to conserve?
Pre-operational Stage (ages 2–7)
What happens when new information doesn't fit into an existing schema?
This causes disequilibrium, a state of mental imbalance where the child realizes their current understanding is incomplete, prompting the need for cognitive adaptation.
What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
The ZPD is the difference between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help. It's where optimal learning occurs, as it challenges the child just enough to grow, but not too much to cause failure.
Which age group failed to take the doll’s perspective in Piaget’s study?
4-year-olds consistently failed to understand the doll’s point of view. They always chose the image that matched their own perspective, showing egocentrism.
Who believed development leads to learning?
Piaget believed that cognitive development occurs in stages and learning can only occur when a child is cognitively ready—development comes first.
At what stage can children begin to reverse operations but not think abstractly?
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7–11)
What is it called when a schema changes to fit new information?
involves modifying an existing schema—or creating a new one—when new information doesn't fit. For example, learning that penguins are birds, even though they can't fly, changes the schema of "birds."
Which type of speech is used by children aged 3–7 while playing?
Egocentric speech: basically, when children talk out loud to themselves during play. It helps guide their actions and begins the transition from external speech to internal thought.
What did Piaget conclude from the mountain task?
He concluded that children under 7 are egocentric, meaning they assume others see what they see and struggle to adopt different viewpoints.
Which theory is based on age-linked cognitive stages?
Piaget’s theory outlines four stages of development—Sensorimotor, Pre-operational, Concrete Operational, and Formal Operational—that unfold based on biological maturation.
Which stage is marked by the development of abstract thinking and problem solving?
Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)
What term describes learning through discovery and independent exploration?
Active learning is the idea that children learn best when they are directly engaged in their environment—exploring, experimenting, and drawing conclusions on their own.
What drives cognitive development according to Vygotsky?
Social interaction—especially with more knowledgeable others—and cultural context are the engines of cognitive growth. Learning is not isolated but embedded in social activities.
What research method did Mullen (1994) use?
Questionnaires were used to study early memories among undergraduates from different cultural backgrounds, examining birth order, gender, and cultural influences.
How would a teacher apply Vygotsky’s theory?
A teacher would use scaffolding, working within a child’s ZPD by providing guidance, modeling tasks, and gradually reducing help as the child becomes more competent.
Which cognitive stage is associated with deliberate motor movements and use of natural reflexes?
Sensorimotor Stage: Children use innate reflexes to explore their environment. Over time, their actions become more intentional, leading to the development of motor skills and cognitive growth through physical interaction with the world.
What happens in the bird-penguin schema example Piaget used?
A 3-year-old may think all birds fly, have wings, and eat worms. When they learn about penguins—birds that can’t fly and eat fish—they must accommodate this new info by updating their schema to include flightless birds.
What is inner speech?
Inner speech is the internal dialogue children use to plan, think, and reflect. It emerges after egocentric speech and becomes an essential part of problem-solving and self-regulation.
What did Mullen (1994) find about memory and culture?
Mullen found that Asian and Asian-American participants had later earliest memories than Caucasians. This reflects cultural differences in how autobiographical memories are shaped, likely due to collectivist vs. individualist values.
Why might Piaget’s theory not apply globally?
Because many researchers say Piaget’s work lacks cross-cultural validity, since much of it was based on qualitative data from Swiss children, and may not reflect how children in other cultures develop or learn.