The Scientific Revolution
This astronomer used telescopic observations of Jupiter's moons and sunspots to provide proof for the heliocentric theory, drawing trials from the Inquisition.
Who was Galileo Galilei?
In Two Treatises of Government, this philosopher argued that all people possess natural rights to Life, Liberty, and Property.
Who was John Locke?
This outspoken French writer championed free speech and religious tolerance, famously declaring: "I disapprove of what you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it."
Who was Voltaire?
This term describes 18th-century European monarchs who attempted to govern using Enlightenment principles while maintaining their absolute royal power.
What are Enlightened Absolutists (or Enlightened Despots)?
Penned by Thomas Jefferson in 1776, this document directly applied John Locke's theories by listing grievances against King George III for breaking the social contract.
What is the Declaration of Independence?
Introduced by Nicolaus Copernicus and refined by Johannes Kepler, this model challenged the ancient Ptolemaic view by placing the Sun at the center of the universe.
What is the Heliocentric Model (or Copernican System)?
Disturbed by the English Civil War, Thomas Hobbes authored this 1651 work, claiming human life without absolute rule is "nasty, brutish, and short."
What is The Leviathan?
In 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, arguing that women appeared inferior primarily due to a lack of this.
What is Education?
This ruler of Prussia was one of the most famous Enlightened Absolutists, famously declaring himself the "first servant of the state."
Who was Frederick the Great (Frederick II)?
In protest of the Tea Act of 1773, the Sons of Liberty dumped 342 chests of British tea into Boston Harbor during this dramatic defiance event.
What is the Boston Tea Party?
Published in his 1687 Principia, this mathematician defined the universal laws of motion and gravity, viewing the universe as a giant regulated machine.
Who was Sir Isaac Newton?
In The Spirit of Laws (1748), Montesquieu argued that government power should be divided into these three distinct branches.
What are the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches?
Scottish economist Adam Smith advocated for this "hands-off" economic policy, arguing the state should not interfere in the free market.
What is Laissez-Faire Capitalism?
Enlightened Absolutism is often considered a contradiction because monarchs introduced legal and administrative reforms while refusing to share this.
What is Political Power (or Sovereign Autocracy)?
Passed in 1765, this direct British tax on printed paper goods unified the colonists in protesting "No Taxation Without Representation."
What is the Stamp Act?
Known as the father of modern Rationalism, this French thinker urged individuals to doubt material senses and famously declared, "I think, therefore I am."
Who was René Descartes?
Jean-Jacques Rousseau stated that society agrees to be governed by this collective agreement, famously writing: "Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains."
What is the "General Will" (or Social Contract)?
These informal gatherings hosted in the drawing rooms of wealthy Parisian women allowed philosophes, writers, and artists to share new Enlightenment ideas.
What are Salons?
Instead of justifying authority through the traditional "Divine Right of Kings," Enlightened Despots justified rule through usefulness to society and this concept.
What is Reason (or Rational Social Progress)?
The United States Constitution incorporated Baron de Montesquieu's principles by dividing federal authority through this structural system.
What is Separation of Powers (with Checks and Balances)?
English philosopher Francis Bacon championed this systematic approach to discovering truth, which relies on inductive reasoning and empirical observation.
What is the Scientific Method?
John Locke rejected the divine right of kings, asserting that humans are born with a Tabula Rasa—a Latin term meaning this.
What is a "Blank Slate"?
In On Crimes and Punishments, Italian thinker Cesare Beccaria argued that punishments should fit crimes and strongly condemned these two common practices.
What are Torture and the Death Penalty?
Name two common areas where Enlightened Despots introduced rational reforms inspired by the philosophes.
Religious Toleration, Educational Expansion, or Legal/Justice Reform?
Guaranteeing Voltaire's free speech and Beccaria's fair trial rights, these initial 10 amendments secured final ratification of the US Constitution.
What is the Bill of Rights?