The transfer of people, goods, animals, and diseases between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Columbian Exchange
What was the main economic focus of French colonies in North America?
The fur trade with Native Americans.
What were the two big impacts of the French Indian War on the British empire and colonies.
England gained a bunch of land, but also picked up a bit of debt.
A system of government where citizens vote directly on laws and decisions, rather than choosing representatives.
Direct democracy
What were three major issues with the Articles of Confederation?
No power to tax.
Was unable to pay for an army.
Was unable to pay off debts to other countries.
No power to regulate trade between states.
No executive branch to enforce laws.
Amendments required unanimous approval, making change nearly impossible.
Which factor most devastated Indigenous populations after 1492?
Diseases like smallpox, measles, and chickenpox.
What religion was central in both Spanish and French colonies?
Catholicism
Name 3 taxes the British crown put on the colonies.
Stamp Act (1765) – tax on paper goods, legal documents, and printed materials.
Sugar Act (1764) – tax on sugar, molasses, and other imports.
Townshend Acts (1767) – duties on goods like glass, paint, paper, and tea.
Tea Act (1773) – gave the British East India Company control over tea sales in the colonies, effectively taxing tea.
The principle that government authority comes from the consent of the governed — the people themselves.
Popular sovereignty
What event ultimately proved that the Articles of Confederation were too weak?
Shays’ Rebellion (1786–87) — an uprising of farmers in Massachusetts that the national government was unable to put down, showing its lack of power.
Which commodity brought from Europe had the greatest impact on Native American lifestyle?
Horses
What 2 problems did the Spanish run into using Native Americans for labor? What was their solution?
The Native Americans kept dying or running away. As a result they imported enslaved peoples from Africa.
Why did colonists object so strongly to the Stamp Act of 1765?
Because they were being charged taxes without getting a representative to voice their opinion in parliament. "No taxation without representation."
What is the central idea of republicanism?
Citizens elect representatives to govern on their behalf.
What was the Anti-Federalists biggest victory in regards to the Constitution?
The Anti-Federalists wanted the addition of the Bill of Rights, which guaranteed protections for individual liberties.
What was the name for corn, beans, and squash grown together for mutual benefit.
Three sisters
What overall difference best summarizes Spanish vs. French colonization?
Economic model & labor: Spain pursued extraction (gold/silver, plantations) using coercive systems like encomienda and missions; France prioritized the fur trade, relying on partnerships with Native trappers rather than forced labor.
Settlement pattern & scale: Spain built large, permanent cities and agricultural hubs; France established sparse forts and river-line trading posts with relatively few settlers.
Native relations & governance: Spain emphasized conquest, conversion, and centralized royal rule (viceroys); France leaned on negotiated alliances, interdependence in trade, and a lighter colonial footprint.
Explain how the Boston Massacre acted as a piece of colonial propaganda.
Colonial leaders exaggerated the event to stir anger against Britain. Although colonists provoked the soldiers and only five people were killed, Patriots portrayed it as a brutal, unprovoked massacre.
How did colonists use the “rights of Englishmen” to justify resistance?
These were rights — like trial by jury and representation in parliament — that should have been extended to all British subjects including colonists. Colonists argued and Britain was violating those rights.
What are three ways (vocabulary words) that Constitution limited the power of the government?
Constitutionalism – The principle that government power is defined and limited by a written constitution, which the government must obey. Separation of
Powers – The division of government authority into three branches (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Checks and Balances – A system where each branch of government can limit the powers of the others (e.g., presidential veto, judicial review).
Federalism – A system of government that divides power between a national government and state governments.
Independent Judiciary – The idea that courts must be free from outside influence so judges can make decisions based on law, not politics.
Bill of Rights – The first ten amendments to the Constitution, guaranteeing individual freedoms such as speech, religion, and due process.
Rule of Law – The principle that the law applies equally to everyone, including leaders and government officials.
Enrich the mother country by extracting raw materials and selling finished goods; it fueled economic growth.
Colonial Mercantilism
What were the two labor systems implemented by the Spanish and how were they different?
Encomienda: granted control over Indigenous communities, forcing them to provide labor and tribute in exchange for “protection” and Christian instruction. Casta: social and racial hierarchy that ranked people based on their ancestry (Spanish, Indigenous, African, or mixed).
How did the British respond to the Boston Tea Party? How did this backfire?
The British responded with the Intolerable Acts, closing Boston Harbor and placing the colony under stricter military control (including the Quartering Act and dissolving Massachusetts’ self-government). This backfired because instead of isolating Boston, it created sympathy for the city and united the colonies against Britain.
According to John Locke’s social contract theory, what should happen if a government fails to protect natural rights?
The people have the right to alter or abolish the government and create one that will safeguard their natural rights.
How did the Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) solve the conflict between the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan?
It created a bicameral legislature: the House of Representatives (based on population, Virginia Plan) and the Senate (equal representation for each state, New Jersey Plan).