Speaking under Pressure
These two emotional barriers may cause learners to avoid speaking and can mistakenly be interpreted as a lack of motivation.
anxiety and inhibition
This language-teaching approach emphasizes meaningful interpersonal communication and integrates reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
ecause it was traditionally overlooked in favour of speaking, listening has been called this fairy-tale skill of second-language education.
"Cinderella skill"
In this approach, students examine examples and discover or infer the grammatical rule themselves.
inductive grammar teaching
Speaking activities are commonly designed around these three performance goals: producing correct language, speaking smoothly, and using varied or elaborate language.
accuracy, fluency, and complexity
During this stage of a speaking activity, learners may receive essential vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation practice, or planning time before performing the main task.
pre-task phase
Nation and Newton distinguish between these two broad forms of listening: one transfers information without interaction, while the other involves communication between speakers and listeners.
one-way or transactional listening and two-way or interactional listening
In this approach to grammar instruction, the teacher presents a rule first and then asks students to apply it to examples.
deductive grammar teaching
According to Levelt’s model, speech production involves these four processes: generating ideas, selecting language, physically producing speech, and checking one’s performance.
conceptualisation, formulation, articulation, and self-monitoring
This materials-development principle is demonstrated when lower-proficiency learners receive sentence frames or notes while more proficient learners receive optional extensions.
differentiation
Students listen to a news report specifically for people’s names, dates, locations, and key facts. This is an example of this type of listening.
The Hello! textbook series contained these four main types of grammar activity.
main inductive presentation activities, supplementary inductive activities, oral communicative activities, and written controlled-practice activities
A learner knows what they want to say but struggles to select suitable vocabulary and organize it according to the conventions of the speaking situation. In Levelt’s model, the difficulty occurs during this stage of speech production.
formulation
Thornbury proposes these six criteria for evaluating a speaking activity: it should have a clear goal, generate substantial language, require communication, stretch learners, reduce risk, and resemble real language use.
purposefulness, productivity, interaction, challenge, safety, and authenticity
A listener identifies sounds, words, and grammar while also using background knowledge and context to predict meaning. These two processing directions are working together.
bottom-up and top-down processing
The Hello! textbooks were designed around this combined approach, in which students discover rules from examples and then use the structures in meaningful oral activities.
an inductive-communicative approach
Speaking places a particularly heavy burden on this limited mental system because learners must retrieve vocabulary, process grammar, articulate sounds, and monitor their message almost simultaneously.
working memory
For learners who lack confidence, Timmis recommends emphasizing this goal first, providing planning time, and avoiding extensive correction while they are initially speaking.
fluency, supported by delayed or minimal correction
Effective listening materials should have these four qualities: combine two processing directions, expose students to varied listening types, use real-world recordings, and develop rather than merely measure comprehension.
integrating bottom-up and top-down processing, including different types of listening, using authentic recordings, and teaching rather than simply testing listening comprehension.
These two major barriers explain why teachers frequently rejected the textbook designers’ inductive and communicative intentions: teachers’ ideas about what good grammar materials should provide, and the influence of examinations on instruction.
teachers’ conceptions or beliefs about good grammar teaching and examination washback