Historical Thinking
What is a primary source?
A primary source is an original document or object from the time studied (e.g., a soldier’s diary).
What does heliocentrism claim about the structure of the solar system?
sun is at the center of the universe
Who was Martin Luther and what was one action he took that sparked reform?
Martin Luther — posted 95 Theses criticizing indulgences.
What was one main goal of European explorers in the 15th–16th centuries?
Goal: find new trade routes, spices, wealth, and territory.
What was the encomienda system?
Spanish system granting colonists labor/extraction rights from Indigenous people.
Define bias in historical sources and explain why identifying bias matters.
a slanted perspective; identifying bias reveals limitations and helps corroborate facts.
Define empiricism in one sentence.
knowledge from observation and experiment.
What were indulgences and why did they cause controversy?
Indulgences = payments for reduced punishment for sins; controversial for implying forgiveness for sale.
Define the Columbian Exchange in one sentence.
transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between Old and New Worlds.
Define "Triangle Trade" in one sentence.
Atlantic system linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas in goods, slaves, and raw materials.
Explain how historians use sourcing (who created a source and when) to evaluate reliability.
Sourcing checks origin/date/author to judge reliability.
Name one scientist from the Scientific Revolution and one key contribution they made.
Copernicus (heliocentric model), Galileo (telescopic evidence), Newton (laws of motion).
Explain one social effect of the Reformation (for example, literacy or education).
Increased Bible reading and literacy as people read scripture in vernacular.
Name two items (one plant/animal and one disease) exchanged between Americas and Eurasia.
Example: potatoes (to Europe), horses (to Americas), smallpox (to Americas).
Name one justification Europeans used for imperialism and one example of colonized resistance.
Justification example: Social Darwinism; resistance example: armed uprisings or noncooperation movements.
Describe how context helps historians interpret an event; give one example from any era.
Context = circumstances (political, social, economic) that shape meaning (e.g., wartime censorship affecting reporting).
Explain how the Scientific Revolution challenged the authority of the Church.
It used observation and reason that sometimes contradicted Church teachings and scripture-based explanations.
How did the printing press help spread Reformation ideas across Europe?
Printing press allowed rapid, wide distribution of pamphlets and translations.
Explain mercantilism and how it influenced European colonization efforts.
Mercantilism = economic policy favoring exports and accumulation of bullion; colonies provided resources and markets.
Explain how the Berlin Conference affected African political boundaries.
Berlin Conference formalized partition without African input, creating arbitrary borders.
A diary written by a soldier, a newspaper editorial, and a government treaty all describe the same battle with different details. Explain two reasons their accounts might differ and how a historian should handle these differences.
perspective, purpose, access to information; historians compare, corroborate, and note provenance.
Describe how the Scientific Revolution contributed to Enlightenment ideas about natural rights and government.
Scientific emphasis on reason and natural laws influenced Enlightenment claims that governments should protect natural rights.
Compare one theological or institutional change proposed by Protestant reformers with one reform within the Catholic Church (Counter-Reformation).
Protestant change: sola scriptura (scripture alone); Catholic reform: Council of Trent reforms clergy education and discipline.
Describe two long-term demographic or economic effects of the Columbian Exchange on the Americas.
Indigenous population declines from disease; new crops changed diets and economies globally.
Analyze one major economic effect of European imperialism on a colonized region and one social/cultural impact.
Economic effect: extraction of resources benefiting metropole; social impact: disruption of local cultures and forced labor systems.