Cell
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are two different groups of organisms, however they still have some things in common. Name at least two of those things.
Both have DNA - eukaryotes have it nucleus, prokaryotes in cytoplasm
Can have cell walls
Cells function similarly
Cell membrane is made out of organic molecule. Name it, draw it's structure and classify it in a organic molecule group.
Phospholipid
Two hydrophobic tails (one saturated and the other unsaturated), Hydrophilic tale (the phosphate group with glycerol acting as a bond)
Lipid
Enzymes are organic molecules. In which group of organic molecules do they fall in to?
Protein
Mitosis is the process of what?
Type of cell division
Creates genetically identical daughter cells
What is a basic unit of DNA and what is it made of?
Nucleic acid - nitrogenous base, (deoxy)pentose sugar and phosphate group
Eukaryotic cells have multiple organelles with double membrane. Name them.
Nucleus
Mitochondria / Mitochondrion
Chloroplast
Benedicts test is a test to determine the presence of the reducing sugars. A student tested a solution of non-reducing sugar (once at room temperature and the other time at 65°C). One time the result was negative, but second test was positive for reducing sugars. Name the possible non-reducing sugar as well as the two possible reducing sugars.
Sucrose
Glucose and fructose
For an enzymatic reaction to take place a substrate has to be present. The substrate binds to an enzyme. Name and explain two hypothesis behind those bonds.
Lock and Key - the substrate and enzyme fit together perfectly - are compatible
Induced fit - substrate and enzyme are not complete fit, but the enzyme shapes its self around substrate
For process of mitosis the DNA has to go through a process to become a chromosome. Write down the process of getting chromosome from a DNA.
DNA - binds itself around protein structures called histones. Histones and DNA together make nucleosomes which binds itself around to create a chromosome.
The four (five) bases can be divided into two groups. What are those groups called and what are their differences'?
Purines and Pyrimidines
Purines - they have a double ring structure
Pyrimidines - they have a single ring structure
Cell wall is a structure found in plants, fungi and bacteria. Can you name the core building element (organic molecule) of each of the three cell walls?
Plants: Cellulose
Fungi: Chitin
Bacteria: Peptidoglycan
Tertiary structure of proteins is crucial for the proteins function. Name the possible bonds that can be found in that kind of structure (include the bonds of primary and secondary structures).
1. Primary: Peptide bond
2. Secondary: Hydrogen bonds
3. Tertiary: Hydrogen, ionic, disulphate and weak hydrophobic interactions
There are many factors influencing the function of enzymes. Name them.
Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration and presence of inhibitors
Before the division DNA replicates itself. That creates a double chromosome. What is a pair of chromosomes called and name the parts of the chromosome.
Homologue chromosome
Double chromosome is made of sister chromatids, which have: Telomere, short arm, centromere, long arm
What does it mean that DNA is a universal code?
The four bases, when the make a triplet (codon) code for a specific amino acid and amino acids make proteins. Any living or non-living creature with genetic material carries the code for the basic 20 amino acids that create proteins. Because it's found in different creatures (plants, animals, bacteria even viruses) is what makes it universal.
At 400x magnification a unit of an eyepiece graticule is calibrated to measure 0,05 um (micro meters). A scientist observing structures has measured a structure measuring 47 units. How long is the structure in mm?
0,00235 mm
0,05um x47= 2,35 um
1000 um = 1 mm
In the lesson of polysaccharides we talked about 3 major polysaccharides. Name;
1. One that was animal made
2. One the is made out of exclusively B glucose.
3. One of the plant polysaccharides that has 1,4 and 1,6 bonds
1. Glycogen
2. Cellulose
3. Amylopectin
Inhibitors might be one of the factors influencing the function of enzymes, but there are many different ones. Name them.
Reversable: Competitive, Uncompetitive, Uncompetitive
Irreversible
Allosteric
Telomeres are important part of chromosomes. Explain what telomeres are and why are they important.
They are non-coding sequences at the end of the chromosomes that serve are protection caps. The are mean as expendable DNA which gets lost bit by bit with every cell division.
What is a gene mutation and which gene mutations do you know?
Mutation is a change in the sequence of base pairs in a DNA molecule thatmay result in an altered polypeptide.
substitutions, deletions and insertions
In microscopy we use different types of microscopes and different types of lights. With what kind of light (light wave) are we able to see the smallest possible structures in the cell (yes, some of these structures may even be on molecular level)?
- short light waves, as the shorter waves allow for clearer differentiation of smaller structures
Water is the only inorganic molecule that is sometimes clumped in with the organic ones. It's important for organisms and it possesses two very important characteristics that allow organisms survive. Which two characteristics are those and can you describe why they are important for living organisms.
High specific heat capacity - It allows water to store a lot of energy in the hydrogen bonds and to break those bonds large amounts of energy are required
High latent heat of vaporation - It's the energy needed for liquid to vaporize in to gas
To calculate the rate of reaction you need to readout the Km. Explain what Km is, and what does it tell us.
Km is a measure of the affinity an enzyme has for its substrate, as the lower the value of Km, the more efficient the enzyme is at carrying out its function at a lower substrate concentration.
Some cells have the ability to divide and become a different kind of cell. What is this process called and how many do you remember?
Potency:
Totipotency
Pluripotency
Multipotency
The process of getting protein from a gene is called what? Name the process and describe it.
Protein synthesis
1. Transcription - DNA opens up, the gene gets transcribed with the help of Polymerase, which binds its self to a promoter before it starts transcription and initial mRNA is created.
2. mRNA goes through the editing process during which the non-coding parts of the sequence is removed
3. mRNA exits nucleus through a nucleus pore, enters cytoplasm and attaches its self to ribosome. The ribosome, acts like a scanner reading the sequence of the mRNA, which allows for tRNA with complementary anti-codons at its end to bring the corresponding amino acid. That amino acid is added to a growing polypeptide chain that will eventually become a protein.