The Nature of Ancient History
What type of material is needed for radiocarbon dating?
Organic material.
What is reconstruction/restoration?
Modifying an ancient structure or its existing material to return it to a known or believed earlier condition.
In which Egyptian burial site was Tutankhamun’s tomb discovered?
The Valley of the Kings.
What objects found in the Treasury were used to preserve Tutankhamun’s internal organs?
Four canopic jars.
Name two types of archaeological sources historians can use to study Persepolis.
Any two: wall reliefs, inscriptions/cuneiform tablets, architectural remains, stone carvings, glazed brickwork, palaces, staircases or gateways.
What was the Apadana primarily used for?
A royal audience/reception hall where the king received officials, representatives and delegations.
Why might knowing the intended audience of a source help historians judge its reliability?
The author may change their language, tone or information depending on who will read it, including deliberately including or omitting information.
Name two actions that may be part of reconstruction.
Any two: repainting, replacing missing parts, reconstructing missing sections or rebuilding.
Name the four main rooms of Tutankhamun’s tomb.
Antechamber, Annexe, Burial Chamber and Treasury.
What does the presence of food, furniture, clothing and other everyday objects in a tomb reveal about Egyptian beliefs?
They believed the deceased would need possessions and supplies in the afterlife.
What written archaeological sources discovered at Persepolis provide information about workers and payments?
The Persepolis Fortification Tablets and Persepolis Treasury Tablets.
What feature of the Apadana reliefs shows the scale and diversity of the Persian Empire?
The 23 groups of tribute-bearers representing different subject peoples of the empire.
Give three reasons historians may reach different conclusions when using the same ancient source.
Different interpretations, different questions, different views of reliability, or different emphasis on evidence.
Why does the age of a site make an accurate reconstruction more difficult?
The older the site, the harder it is to know exactly what the original structure looked like and therefore whether the reconstruction is accurate.
What discovery on 4 November 1922 led Carter to Tutankhamun’s tomb?
A step cut into the rock beneath ancient workmen’s huts.
What burial custom is depicted on the eastern wall of Tutankhamun's Burial Chamber?
The funeral procession — Tutankhamun's body is shown being transported to the tomb by mourners and officials.
Who led the major excavation of Persepolis beginning in 1931?
Ernst Herzfeld, working with the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
What was the purpose of the Gate of All Nations?
It acted as the monumental entrance through which delegations and visitors entered the royal complex, symbolically presenting them as peoples of the Persian Empire.
Which scientific dating technique measures the decay of Carbon-14 in organic material?
Radiocarbon dating / Carbon-14 dating.
Give two ways large numbers of tourists could benefit an archaeological site.
E.g. to allow people to experience heritage, increase awareness or attract money/support for the site.
What evidence showed Carter that the tomb had been entered before its modern discovery?
The passageway and second sealed doorway showed signs of ancient break-ins and resealing.
What does the Opening of the Mouth ceremony shown on the northern wall reveal about Egyptian funerary beliefs?
Rituals were performed to restore the deceased's senses and prepare the pharaoh for continued existence in the afterlife.
What important discovery did Friedrich Krefter make during Herzfeld’s excavation of the Apadana?
The gold and silver Foundation Tablets of Darius I, written in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian.
How did the design of the Apadana help communicate the power of the Persian king?
Its elevated position, huge columned hall, monumental staircases and reliefs of subject peoples approaching the king created an image of imperial scale, order and royal authority.
What dating technique uses the layers of soil at an archaeological site?
Stratigraphy / stratigraphic dating
Give two ways large numbers of tourists could threaten an archaeological site.
E.g. physical wear, touching/climbing structures, erosion, pressure for new facilities/access, overcrowding or damage to fragile remains.
Why were the two life-sized statues of Tutankhamun in the Antechamber important to understanding the tomb's layout?
They guarded/flanked the sealed entrance leading from the Antechamber into the Burial Chamber, helping identify where the king himself was buried.
The western wall contains 12 baboons representing the 12 hours of night. What does this evidence reveal about Egyptian beliefs about death?
The deceased was believed to undertake a dangerous journey through the underworld during the night before reaching the afterlife.
How did archaeological investigation of Persepolis change under Erich Schmidt compared with earlier exploration of the site?
Schmidt carried out a more organised, large-scale excavation and uncovered important documentary evidence, including archives of cuneiform tablets.
The Apadana reliefs show subject peoples bringing gifts rather than being shown as defeated prisoners. What message about Persian kingship might this communicate?
That the king ruled a vast but orderly and cooperative empire, with diverse peoples recognising his authority rather than simply being shown as conquered enemies.
What dating technique uses the annual growth rings of trees?
Dendrochronology.
Explain one benefit and one major problem created by reconstructing archaeological sites such as Knossos.
Benefit: helps visitors visualise and understand what the site may once have looked like.
Problem: reconstruction involves interpretation and modern additions, which may be inaccurate and can blur the difference between original ancient remains and modern reconstruction.**
Identify three methods Carter's team used to record artefacts before removing them and explain why this was important.
Artefacts were numbered, photographed in situ, sketched/described on record cards and their positions mapped. This preserved their archaeological context after they were removed from the tomb.
Why was sealing the tomb itself an important burial custom according to Egyptian beliefs?
Egyptians believed the mummy was meant to remain undisturbed for eternity, because disturbing the body could threaten the deceased’s survival in the afterlife.
Why are the Persepolis Fortification Tablets particularly valuable for historians studying the city?
They provide evidence about everyday administration that monumental architecture and royal reliefs do not, including the origins of workers and the amounts they were paid.
Why must historians be cautious when using ancient written sources to reconstruct the destruction of Persepolis by Alexander?
Ancient writers may have different purposes, perspectives and explanations for the burning; they were not necessarily eyewitnesses and may have shaped the story to explain or judge Alexander’s actions. Historians therefore need to compare their accounts with each other and with archaeological evidence.