Descartes
Why does he describe God as an Evil Genius?
- To question all beliefs, to stip away anything that can be doubted, even seemingly self-evident truths.
- Argues that God is capable of manipulating perceptions, mathematical truths, and logical reasoning, and as we know sensory perceptions can be deceptive.
- Serves as a thought experiment, testing the limits of skepticism by considering the most extreme possibility of deception.
What is the purpose of scientific knowledge?
- Regain control over nature, improve human life by focusing on medicine and technology
- New scientific method- inductive reasoning, moving from specific observations to general principles, and science should generate useful, real world knowledge for human process.
-Overcome idols of the mind that distort understanding
What is a good will, and why is it believed to be the only thing that is good without qualification?
- A good will acts according to duty and the moral law, not personal desires or outcomes
-Motivated by respect for the moral law rather than by consequences or self interest
-Its the only thing that is good without qualification because its goodness is not dependent on external factors and it remains good regardless of the results, adn stays good regardless of how its used.
What is the greatest happiness principle?
-Greatest happiness- the goal is to promote the greatest happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people
-Consequentialism- actions are judged by their outcomes, specifically by the amount of happiness or well-being they produce
- Utility- refers to the overall balance of pleasure over pain resulting from actions (or well-being over suffering)
Why does Burke place such importance on traditions and institutions?
- Traditions and institutions embody the accumulated wisdom of generations, refined through experience.
- They provide continuity and stability, preventing societal chaos and disorder
- Give people a sense of belonging and identity, fostering loyalty to society.
- Institutions uphold moral values and norms that guide individual behavior.
- He advocates for slow, organic change rather than radical reforms, which can disrupt social order.
Why does Descarte adopt a method of radical doubt? What is his approach to epistemology?
- To question all beliefs, rejecting anything that can be doubted for a secure foundation for knowledge.
- Wants to build a foundation of absolutely certain knowledge.
- Stages of doubt
1. Doubt of sensory perceptions- dreams are senses and they're deceptive.
2. The world might be a mere illusion or dream
3. Even basic mathematical truths might be distorted by a powerful evil genius
- Wants to discover a belief that is absolutely undoubtable
Why does he believe his method of empirical and inductive method of learning is superior to the deductive method of science?
- Deductive reasoning leads to abstract speculation and entrenched errors, whereas inductive reasoning builds knowledge gradually for specific observations
- Induction yields discoveries that benefit society, unlike sterile deduction
- Overcomes idols of the mind that distort understanding
What is the role of duty for kant? What's the difference between acting from duty to acting according to duty?
- Duty is central to morality, guiding actions based on the moral law
- Actions must be done out of respect for duty, not for personal gain or emotions
- Acting from duty = acting because it's morally required, motivated by respect for the moral law- ex. helping someone because it's your duty (because it's the right thing to do)
-According to duty = acting in line with duty but motivated by self interest or other external factors- ex. helping someone to gain praise or a reward
How do utilitarians define happiness?
- Utilitarians define happiness as the presence of pleasure and the absence of pain
- Focuses on the long-term consequences, not just immediate gratification
How does a Burkean conservative think about social change?
- Social change should occur slowly, respecting inherited traditions and avoiding radical shifts.
- Reforms must protect the stability of long-standing institutions that maintain social order
I think therefore I am- Explain how this proves our existence?
- Doubts everything -> act of doubting requires a thinking subject -> thinking cannot occur without a thinker -> the thinking self cannot be doubted
What are the four idols of the mind and their origins?
- Tribe- origin: human nature- projecting our expectations onto nature- with patterns
- Cave- origin: personal biases- subjective interpretations
- Marketplace- origin: popular language- ambiguity of words -> confusion and false conclusions
- Theater- origin: inherited traditional beliefs- acceptance of flawed or outdated theories
What is the categorical imperative and its foundations? Compare with a hypothetical imperative.
- Categorical imperative- unconditional moral command that applied to all, regardless of goals- unconditional, based on moral duty. Ex. always tell the truth, no matter the consequences.
- Formula of Universal Law- act only according to maxims you can will to be a universal law
- Formula of Humanity as an End in Itself- treat humanity, in yourself and others, always as an end, never merely as a means- don't use others for personal gain
- Formula of the Kingdom of Ends- act as if your actions could be part of a moral community where everyone is treated as an equal- act in a way that could be a law in a community of equals.
- Hypothetical Imperative- conditional command based on a specific goal or desire- conditional based on a goal. Ex. study if you want to pass the exam.
On what basis does Mill argue that some pleasures are higher and better than others?
- Mill argues that intellectual and moral pleasures are superior to bodily pleasures
- Those who have experienced both consistently prefer higher pleasures, since higher pleasures are more lasting and satisfying
- Pursuing higher pleasures leads to personal and societal improvement
In what ways would Burke disagree with the social contract theorists?
- He emphasizes inherited traditions and institutions, rejecting the idea that society is based solely on individual consent.
- Burke distrusts attems to redesign society based on abstract principles, unlike social contract theorists who rely on reason to create just systems.
- Burke defends natural hierarchies and established authority, while social contract theorists often emphasize equality and individual autonomy.
How does Descarte prove God's existence, and why does he feel he needs to prove it?
- To guarantee the reliability of clear and distinct ideas, and ensures the validity of mathematical truths and knowledge of the external world
- God's perfection ensures that Descartes is not being deceived.
- God exists in Descartes' mind -> only a perfect being could cause this idea -> God must exist
- God is a supremely perfect being -> existence is a necessary attribute of perfection -> God's essence includes existence -> God must exist
What are the two ways that our senses fail us in our grasp of the knowledge of nature?
- Limited perception- the senses provide an incomplete and narrow view of reality, and they can only perceive phenomena within a limited range, missing subtleties and underlying structures -> can't see bacteria with the naked eye
-Distortion and Deception- the senses mislead, distorting reality and presenting false impressions, and are prone to errors, particularly when influenced by environmental conditions or biases. -> a stick appears bent when partially submerged in water due to light refraction
What's the difference between an autonomous and heteronomous will? Compare this with Rousseau.
- Autonomous will- acts based on self-imposed moral laws, ex. telling the truth because its the right thing to do.
- Heteronomous will- influenced by external desires or authority, ex. telling the truth to avoid punishment
- Rousseau's view- true freedom comes from following the general will, aligning individual freedom with the common good, rather than personal desires (the will of all).
- Difference: Kant focuses on individual moral law, while Rousseau emphasizes collective autonomy through the general will.
What are some common criticisms of the theory?
- Measuring and comparing pleasures and pains is difficult and subjective
- Utilitarianism may sacrifice individual rights for the greater good
- It's hard to predict long-term consequences accurately
- Focuses solely on outcomes, ignoring the moral significance of intentions.
- It may justify harmful actions if they produce overall happiness.
What role does Burke think religion ought to have in the social and political order?
- Religion provides the moral framework that upholds societal order and virtues, since religious institutions reinforce respect for authority and tradition, essential for social stability.
-Believes religion sanctifies political and social institutions, making them more respected and enduring.
How does Descartes prove that the external world exists? How does he prove his body exists?
Proof of the external world- Sensory ideas are vivid and involuntary, suggesting an external cause -> Descartes cannot create these ideas himself -> must come from external objects
Proof that he has a body- Sensations like pain and hunger point to a connection with a physical body -> these sensations cannot be purley mental -> confirms he has a body.
Mind: a thinking, non-physical substance
Body: a physical, non-thinking substance
How does he connect his scientific enterprise to the early chapters of Genesis?
- Restoring humanity’s dominion over nature
- Reversing the Fall through knowledge
- Mirroring God’s order in creation
- Criticizing speculative interpretations
- Viewing science as deepening faith
Explain Kant's distinction between humans as "ends in themselves" and as means to be used for others' ends- use an example.
- Humans as ends in themselves- respect for intrinsic value and autonomy, ex. helping a friend because its the right thing to do, not for personal gain.
- Humans as means to an end- exploiting others for personal gain, ex. using a colleague to advance your career, without concern for their well being.
Explain how utilitarian logic would apply to a moral issue of your choosing.
Moral Issue: Allocation of limited healthcare resources
- Allocate resources to treatments that save or improve the greatest number of lives
- Prioritize patients with the highest chance of recovery or those whose treatment would lead to the most years of healthy life
- Choose treatments that are most cost- efficient
- Decisions should be based on overall outcomes, not personal relationships or social status.
Explain how Kant's deontological logic would apply to a moral issue of your choosing.
- Formula of Universal Law- lying to cover a company mistake- if everyone did this trust and accountability would collapse, thersfore lying is morally wrong because it can't be universalized.
- Formula of Humanity as an End in Itself- covering up the mistake doesn't respect the employee's dignity or allow them to learn form their actions, therefore lying uses the employee and company as mere means, not an end.
- Formula of the Kingdom of Ends- In a community where honesty prevails, transparency and responsibility are respected, therefore lying contradicts the moral community based on honesty and respect.