Human Growth
Only one psychoanalyst's developmental theory covers the entire lifespan. Who is he?
Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson is responsible for an eight-stage developmental theory. His final stage, "integrity vs. despair," starts at age sixty, and each stage includes a turning point [or crisis) of some sort. It is sometimes argued that other theorists, such as Sigmund Freud, also have developmental theories encompassing the full lifespan. However, Freud's final stage still speaks of childhood, and Erik Erikson's theory has a stated stage that clearly includes the mature adult and the possibility of peak adjustment at that stage, assuming the other stages have been successfully resolved.
A career counselor who adheres to Holland’s theory of career choice may have his clients take the _______to help determine personality types.
MMPI
The MMPI [Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is usually used by clinical psychologists to clarify diagnoses of mental disorders.
A counselor is sent a client who is "culturally different " from himself. Is it ethical for the counselor to counsel this client?
Yes.
A counselor can enter into a therapeutic relationship with a client, even if that client is culturally different. In such a situation, the term "cultural relativity” comes into play. Cultural relativity basically refers to the belief that a situation is relative to the culture in which it occurs. In the counseling setting, the therapist would address the issues presented by the client in terms of the client's culture. It would not be appropriate to do otherwise. For example, something that would be acceptable in the counselor’s culture may not be acceptable from the client's perspective. Therefore, applying the client’s issues to the counselor’s culture would not be relevant [or helpful].
Who theorized about "primary narcissism"?
Freud
A narcissistic client is only interested in issues related to self. His body, thoughts, needs, and anything that is related to him is what seems real. Everything else, as not related to the self, is not perceived as real or of interest by the narcissistic personality. This issue was discussed early in psychology theory. Freud talked about "primary narcissism" as a time when, as infants, individuals are unable to differentiate between self and others. Self-interest is not without its positive aspects, however, as it can be useful in the interest of self-preservation. However, a pathological narcissism can interfere with interpersonal relationships and social connectedness, leading to further problems in the client's life.
What branch of psychology deals primarily with groups and social factors?
Social Psychology
Social Psychology deals primarily with groups and other social factors. This area of psychology studies issues such as how individuals behave in group settings, how social interaction affects the individual, and how the individual impacts upon society. Simply put, Social Psychology combines Psychology and Sociology.
Which is more important, validity or reliability?
Validity
Experts nearly always consider validity the number one factor in the construction of a test. A test must measure what is purports to measure.
An experiment in which neither the subjects nor the individuals running the study know which subjects are in the control group and which are in the experimental group until after results are tallied is called a _________study.
Double-Blind
A single-blind study is one in which only one part of the team is unaware of who is receiving the treatment. In a single-blind study, either the researcher is unaware, or the participants are unaware, not both. In a double-blind study neither the researcher running the study, nor the subjects know who is in the control group.
Most ethical issues are related to:
Confidentiality
Confidentiality is a major ethical consideration for the mental health professional, and it is also tested the most often. Confidentiality not only affects what is said during counseling sessions, but also involves the storage of records, testimony in court, communication between professionals, and many other areas of practice. The scope of "confidentiality” is so far reaching that it even protects the client after death. When in doubt about any issue related to confidentiality, a counselor should consult the ACA Code of Ethics and other practitioners for assistance. The rules are clear, but situations can sometimes arise that make them difficult to interpret.
The theorist associated with bonding and attachment is:
John Bowlby
John Bowlby (1907-1990) focused his theory on bonding and attachment. Adler is associated with birth order and family constellation
A seventeen-year-old client has been referred for intellectual testing. What test is likely to be performed?
WAIS-IV
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for those over the age of sixteen, and it is the IQ test for adults. It was developed by David Wechsler and began in 1939 as the Wechsler-Bellevue Scale. In 1955, the WAIS replaced that original test, and has gone through several revisions since that time. The eleven subtests of the WAIS address both verbal (six subtests) and performance (five subtests) abilities. The subject receives scaled scores for each of the subtests, and then an overall performance IQ score, verbal IQ score, and a full-scale IQ (FSIQ) score.
Acculturation takes place when:
Two Cultures Mix.
Acculturation takes place when two different cultures mix together and begin to change.
Who is best known for the Little Albert experiment?
John Watson
John Watson is a well-known behaviorist who believed that any behavior can be learned. He claimed that if he were given any child and allowed to raise that child however, he saw fit, he could make the child turn out however he dictated, regardless of the child's talents and abilities. His most famous experiment, the Little Albert experiment, involved conditioning a young boy to fear a white rat. He was also able to generalize that fear to other furry, white objects. Watson never deconditioned the child, so the experiment is often used as an example of unethical research. Behavioral modification and conditioning are still widely used today in therapy.
A counselor is starting an eating disorders group. Ethically, she should ____________ all possible candidates to make sure they are suitable for the group.
Screen
Whenever a counselor is going to begin a therapy group, she must screen all of the possible clients to make sure that they are good candidates for group therapy.
The National Counselor Exam (NCE) is a _____ test because the scoring procedure is specific.
Objective
Since the NCE uses an a, b, c, d alternative format the rater's "subjective" feelings and thoughts would not be an issue.
Research that compares findings across many studies is known as:
Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis is research that compares the results of many studies in order to answer one or more research questions.
When a conflict arises between the American Counseling Association [ACA) Code of Ethics and a governing authority, which takes precedence?
Ultimately, the law may be adhered to over the Code of Ethics
Counselors should make every effort to be knowledgeable of and adhere to the Code of Ethics as set forth by the ACA. The practice of counselors should remain fully within the bounds of that code, but there may be times when ethics come in conflict with law, regulations, or other forms of authority. When this happens, the counselor is responsible for taking steps to alleviate this conflict. If the counselor's conflict between the ACA Code of Ethics and the rule of law cannot be resolved, then the counselor may adhere to legal authority.
Reinforcement ________ the likelihood of the behavior to occur again, and punishment _________ the likelihood of the behavior to occur again.
Increases; Decreases
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again, and punishment decreases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. Reinforcements are positive and desirable, so an individual will perform behaviors to get them. Punishments are negative and undesirable, so an individual will avoid performing certain behaviors, so they don’t get punished.
Krumholtz’s Learning Theory of Career Counseling (LTCC) is based on what early theorist?
Bandura
The Social Learning Theory of Career Decision-Making, as it was first called by Mitchell and Krumboltz, was later developed into the Learning Theory of Career Counseling [LTCC]. Its basic foundation is Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory as it seeks to explain why people make the choices they do in relation to careers.
Who developed the “social distance scale”?
Emory Bogardus
The Social Distance Scale is a technique developed by Emory Bogardus in the 1930s to measure social distance. It's usually thought of as related to issues of prejudice. The scale asks an individual to agree or disagree with a number of statements about a particular group. It looks at factors such as intimacy, warmth, hostility, and indifference. The scale measures a person's willingness to connect socially with different groups depending upon their social closeness to someone from that group. Bogardus found negative attitudes toward Turks, African Americans, and Jewish and Mexican groups in his study. A replication of the study in 1947 found that those attitudes were still present.
What type of theory includes "reflection"?
Gestalt
Gestalt theory, developed by Frederick and Laura Peris, lists "reflection" as a defense mechanism. Reflection in Gestalt therapy, put simply, is doing to oneself what one wishes to do to someone else.
Greg seems to make light of everything that goes on in the group. If someone is late, for example, he makes a humorous remark about calling for a search party. Greg would be described as the ________ of the group.
Joker
Group participants tend to take on different roles within the group, usually based upon how the individual interacts with others outside of the group. There are a number of different roles. Scapegoats generally take the blame for things that go wrong in the group. They allow others to point the finger at them without resistance. Placaters are the individuals in the group who try to appease everyone. They usually are uncomfortable with any conflict and are easily drawn to making concessions to keep peace in the group. Dominators or monopolizers are those who seem to control the group’s discussions. They steer the discussion in the direction they want it to go. They seldom allow others to talk. Jokers, on the other hand, are those who make light of things, usually as a defense. They typically lack confidence and use humor as a way to detract or distract others from conflictual situations.
The first intelligence test was created by:
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
By 1905, Binet, along with his coworker Simon, created a 30-question test with school-related items of increased difficulty.
What are the measures of central tendency?
Mean, Median, and Mode
The mean is the arithmetic average of the scores or measurements of a number of individuals, and thus it is a measure of central tendency. The median is the middle score in a distribution of scores and is also a measure of central tendency. the mode is the most frequent score in a distribution and is another measure of central tendency.
A counselor wants to discuss the treatment of a particular client with the client's physician. Ethically, the counselor should:
Have the client sign a release-of-information consent form prior to any contact with the physician, have the client talk to her/his physician.
A counselor who wants to consult or contact another professional, a client's family member, or someone else who works with a particular client must have the client give written permission to contact and share information. If the counselor gets contacted by someone who has contact with the client the counselor cannot acknowledge that the client is being seen unless the client has signed a release-of-information.
Cody does what his parents say because he doesn’t want to lose his television privileges. This is an example of what level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Preconventional
Kohlberg postulated that in the first level, preconventional, individuals are concerned with consequences imposed upon them for wrongdoing. Thus, in the example, Cody wanted to avoid being punished by having his television privileges taken away. At the conventional level individual wants to conform to societal rules so that authority rules and order is maintained. At the postconventional level, individuals define morality in terms of universal values and altruism.
One of the main premises of who's theory is that individuals choose occupations that will permit them to use their competencies.
Super's Theory
Super's theory ascribes to the notion that one's self-concept is ultimately important in career choices. He believed that people choose a career based on their competencies—what they are good at.
If utilizing the LEARN Model for cross-cultural client care, the N stands:
Negotiate
Listen, Explain, Acknowledge, Recommend, Negotiate
Andrew would like to talk to a counselor about some things he has on his mind. He wonders just what his life means and what the point is to our existence. He feels considerable anxiety over many things, and he frequently feels guilty as well. He is very introspective and is always seeking to understand himself better. Which type of therapy would probably make a good fit for Andrew?
Existential Therapy
Existentialism addresses the search for meaning which would be the best choice of these for Andrew. It would be a natural fit with his personality, since he already wonders and worries about the meaning of life and his role in it. Anxiety and guilt are also important concepts in existential therapy. Since Andrew often has these emotions, this form of counseling would help him to address his feelings and help explain why he has them. Andrew wants to understand himself better, and self-actualization is also a goal of existential counseling.
Ken belongs to a group whose aim is to prevent substance abuse among teens and young adults. In this group, the leader teaches members various coping skills and healthy behaviors. According to Caplan, this would be an example of:
A primary group
In Caplan's model, a primary group emphasizes a healthy lifestyle and/or coping strategies aimed at reducing the incidence of a certain problem. In this case, it is substance abuse. This kind of group could also be aimed at preventing teen pregnancy, preventing divorce, etc.
How accurate or inaccurate a test score is refers to:
The Standard Error of Measurement
If a client decided to take the same test over and over again you could plot a distribution of scores. This would be the standard error of measurement for the instrument in question. Suffice it to say, the lower the better. A low standard error means high reliability.
A study measuring the IQ levels of a group of men, of differing ages, performed on a single day is most likely an example of:
A Cross-Sectional Study
A cross-sectional study involves a research study using people who are similar in all areas except the variable that is being studied. For instance, one might wish to measure the intelligence level of a group of people of differing ages. However, measuring the intelligence level of differing ages during the same year does not account for lifestyle issues, differing resources that were available to the older subjects vs. the younger ones, etc. This is one of the criticisms of cross-sectional studies.
What is the process called when an institution or program receives public recognition for meeting standards?
Accreditation
Accreditation is what an institution receives when it meets certain established standards or qualifications. Colleges, universities, and specialized programs of study may receive accreditation via regional agencies of the US Department of Education; health care facilities are accredited via the Joint Commission [formerly JCAHO]. Accreditation is granted only to an institution or a program and not to individuals.
List the correct sequence of stages in Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?
Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development are 1} sensorimotor [birth to 2 years) during which the child learns about himself and his environment through sensory perceptions and motor activities: 2) preoperational [2-7 years) in which language develops and the child is egocentric; 3) concrete operational [7-11 years) during which the child begins to think logically but still has trouble with abstract concepts: and 4) formal operational [11 years to adulthood) during which the child develops the capability of logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning.
What did passage of the Smith-Hughes Act accomplish?
It granted federal funds for vocational education and guidance
The Smith-Hughes Act [1917} granted federal funds for vocational education and guidance.
A client who is devoutly religious and believes her disability is punishment for sins may benefit most from which of the following?
Pastoral Counseling
A client who is devoutly religious and believes her disability is punishment for sins may benefit most from pastoral counseling because a pastor who is trained as a therapist may help the client balance religious and health beliefs in a more realistic manner. Pastoral counselors often carry out both psychological and spiritual counseling, providing the client with the support of the faith community. Pastoral counselors may represent many different faiths and branches of religions.
In Ellis' rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), what do the A, B, and C stand for in his A-B-C-D-E modalities’ classification?
Action, Belief, Consequent Affect
An action or activity, defined as an external event, is the first step in therapy. This induces a belief, evident in the form of a self-verbalization. Third, there is a consequent affect [i.e., a feeling derived from the belief). This affect may be rational or irrational. (D and E stand for disputing and effect.)
The group leader points out defenses, resistances, and transferences as they occur in which type of group?
Psychoanalytic Group
A leader of a psychoanalytic group attempts to re-create, analyze, and interpret the participants' defenses, resistances, and transferences.
A career counselor is using a test for job selection purposes. An acceptable reliability coefficient would be ____ or higher.
.80
Although .70 is generally acceptable for most psychological attributes, for admissions for jobs, schools, and so on, it should be at least .80 and some experts will not settle for less than .90.
Behavior changing as a result of just being part of an experiment is called the _______ while believing that someone with an extensive vocabulary is better at communicating is called the ________.
Hawthorne Effect; Halo Effect
The halo effect is the tendency to generalize about a person based on one trait. In this case, assuming an individual is a better communicator simply because they have an extensive vocabulary is an example of the halo effect. The Hawthorne effect is the tendency for participants to change their behavior just because they are participants in a research study.
What is the difference between confidentiality and privileged communication?
Confidentiality is an ethical concept, and privileged communication is a legal concept.
Confidentiality is an ethical concept, derived from the need for an expectation of privacy in order to have a successful working relationship (i.e., little positive work can be achieved if the client fears to reveal crucial information based upon fears the information may be divulged elsewhere). By contrast, privileged communication is a legal concept, as it is granted in specific circumstances by state law - for counselors, it is often found in state licensure laws.