Aims
To investigate the relationship between eye movements and dreaming.
1) Does dream recall differ between REM and NREM stages of sleep?
2) Is there a positive correlation between estimated dream duration and REM period length?
3) Are eye movements related to the dream content?
Dement and Kleitman
I.V- empathy, low or high
treatment, oxytocin or placebo
condition (exp 1 ), ball, stranger, authority or friend
D.V- experiment 1: prefered distance measured between pp and object
experiment 2: preffered distance and angle between 2 chairs
Perry
Strengths- laboratory experiment: control extraneous variables
validity: standardized
Weaknesses- ethical concerns: harm
lacked generalizability: small sample
Bandura
Passengers gave 78% of the victims spontaneous help and in 60% of the cases, victim was helped by more than one person.
The cane victim was helped on 62 out of 65 trials (95%).
The drunk victim was helped on 19 out of 38 trials (50%).
90% of passengers who helped the victim were male.
On 60% of the total trials where help was given (i.e. 81 trials), more than one person offered help.
Race made no significant difference to the helping behavior but there was a slight tendency for samerace helpers in the drunk condition.
64% of the helpers were White.
The quickest help came from larger groups. This showed no diffusion of responsibility.
In 21 trials out of the grand total of 103, a total of 34 was drunk.
The model intervening at 70 seconds was more likely to lead to help from other passengers than when the model intervened after 150 seconds.
Number of bystanders provided no evidence for diffusion of responsibility.
Some passengers moved away from critical area (21/103).
More comments made in drunk trail.
Piliavin
61 females, 21 males
Hassett
To investigate bystander behavior in a natural setting
To investigate the effect of the following variables on helping:
1) type of victim
2) race of the victim
3) model behavior
4) size of bystander group
Piliavin
I.V- whether they had AS/HFA or were normal, and gender
D.V- RET score, AQ score, and gender identification for group 1
Baron-Cohen
Strengths- Detailed Case Study Methodology
Pioneering Conceptual Framework
Specificity and Relevance of Treatment
Weaknesses- Limited Generalizability
Lack of a Control Group
Subjective Measurement
Saavedra and Silverman
Participants reported to the lab before their personal bedtime. They ate their normal diet but were asked to avoid caffeine (alertness) and alcohol (drowsiness) on the day of the study. They slept in a dark, quiet room. They had 2 EOG electrodes near their eye and 2/3 EEG electrodes to the scalp. A doorbell (for standardization) had been used to wake participants up at random from REM or NREM. All participants were woken up when an eye movement pattern lasted for at least a minute. Everyone returned to sleep in less than 5 minutes.
Procedure 1 - They were woken up at various times to test their dream recall (during REM and NREM). Dream narrative recorded on a tape recorder (to prevent researcher bias). They were asked if they had a dream or not, and if they did, then they recorded it. Dream only counted if the recall was clear.
Procedure 2 - Participants were woken up after either 5 or 15 minutes into their REM sleep. Participants guessed the duration they had dreamt for. The number of words in the dream narrative was counted after the participants reported their dream.
Procedure 3 - Participants’ eye movement direction was detected with the EOG. Participants were woken up and they reported their dream.
BONUS -What is the procedure for Dement and Kleitman?-
40 members of the Medical Research Council of the Applied Psychology Unit were chosen through the opportunity sampling method
18-55
Mostly women who were paid a small sum
Tired form an other study and picked as they were heading home
35 females, 5 men
Andrade
To investigate the differences in identification abilities between young children and adults
To explore the influence of social and cognitive factors on eye witness identification accuracy in both children and adults
Pozzulo
I.V- elephants age
D.V- elephants ability to learn and change
Fagen
Strengths- Use of a control group
use of voxel-based morphometry- change in grey matter concentration
use of a standardized mindfulness program
Weaknesses- small sample size
lack of randomization
lack of blinding
Holzel
Male- wheeled: 73% plush: 9% none: 18%, preferred wheeled over plush
Female- wheeled: 30% plush: 39% none: 30%, no preference between wheeled or plush
human comparison
Hassett
9 participants
7 males, 2 females
5 were studied, 4 used for confirming
Dement and Kleitman
To find whether after observing a model's aggressive behavior, children will reproduce it in the model's absence
To find if the model's gender affected this in any way
Bandura
I.V- whether participants doodled or not
D.V- responses to the 2 tasks to measure recall
Andrade
Strengths- Use of a control group
use of voxel-based morphometry- change in grey matter concentration
use of a standardized mindfulness program
Weaknesses- small sample size
lack of randomization
lack of blinding
Pozzulo
Imagery Exposure Sessions
Increased Distress Initially
Posttreatment Follow-Up
Improvement in Daily Life
Reduction in Phobia
Saavedra and Silverman
Group 1- 15 male adults with AS/HFA: self-selecting
Group 2- 122 adults (55 males, 67 females): control
Group 3- 103 undergraduate students: control
Group 4- 14 randomly selected adults
Baron-Cohen
Assess whether SPR techniques could be effective to train free-contact elephants in Nepal
Training them to voluntarily participate in a trunk wash, a procedure necessary for tuberculosis testing
Fagen
I.V- whether or not PP participated in the 8 week MBSR course
D.V- changes in grey matter, measured by MRI scans
Holzel
Strengths- control of variables
highly reliable
real-world application
Weaknesses- Low ecological validity
Deception
Lack of protection - participants were visibly stressed during the study
low internal validity
Milgram
Experiment 1 (CID) – A significant main effect was found for the condition, with participants preferring different distances from the various protagonists (stranger, authority figure, friend, and ball). This effect suggests that perceived threat from others is a significant factor in mediating the equilibrium between interpersonal distance and social interaction.
Experiment 2 (Intimacy Context) – A significant effect was found for the condition, but no main effect for treatment and no significant second-order interactions. However, there was a significant third-order interaction between condition, treatment, and empathy. Specifically, the treatment x empathy interaction was significant only for the chairs condition. Participants in the high empathy group chose closer chair distances following OT administration, while the opposite was true for those in the low empathy group.
Overall Findings – The study concluded that administering OT had an impact on interpersonal distance preferences depending on the trait empathy levels of the participants. Participants with high empathy traits preferred closer interpersonal distances following OT administration, whereas an opposite trend was revealed among participants with low empathy traits.
These results indicate that the effect of OT on social cognition and behavior varies based on individual differences, such as empathy levels. The findings support the social salience hypothesis and highlight the nuanced role of OT in influencing social interactions.
Perry
Volunteer or self-selecting sampling was used. A newspaper advert had been used to recruit 40 men aged between 20 and 50 years old. They were from a variety of educational backgrounds. They were from New Haven.
Milgram