Old Studies
Unlike classical and operant conditioning, this type of learning can happen without you ever performing the behavior or being directly reinforced for it.
Observational learning
Tversky and Kahneman named this shortcut: judging how common or likely something is by how easily examples come to mind.
Availability heuristic
Knowing that a bicycle has two wheels, a chain, and handlebars, without remembering when or where you learned it, is this type of explicit memory.
Semantic memory
Identical twins' IQs correlate about .86 when raised together and about .72 when raised apart. A high correlation apart, but a higher one together, suggests this about intelligence.
It is influenced by environment
Thorndike's cats escaping puzzle boxes led to this principle: responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely, and those followed by unsatisfying ones become less likely.
The law of effect
At her old dentist, the drill whined loudly and hurt. Now the whine of her new hygienist's painless electric toothbrush makes Priya's stomach clench. This type of learning, first studied by Pavlov, explains her reaction.
Classical conditioning
Kata forgets her bike lock code so she decides to systematically try all the possible combinations: 0000, 0001, 0002 and so on. It is guaranteed to work eventually but could take hours, exemplifying this type of problem-solving strategy.
Algorithm
You've handled thousands of pennies, but you can't say which way Lincoln faces. Forgetting because the detail never got into long-term memory in the first place is called this.
Encoding failure
If someone has an IQ of 120 and the center of the normal curve is 100, we can say this about their intelligence.
It's above average
In Tolman's famous experiment, mice who had access to a maze with no food reward showed a sharp increase in performance once a food reward was introduced, demonstrating this phenomenon.
Latent learning
Nadia watches a concert violinist every week and can describe every bow movement from memory, yet her own attempts squeak really badly. Her problem lies in this step of Bandura's social learning process.
Reproduction
Lena gets a bad feeling from a landlord's pushy manner and decides renting the apartment is too risky. Basing a risk judgment on that gut emotional reaction relies on this mental shortcut.
Affect heuristic
When Jordan feels anxious, memories of nervousness come to mind far more easily than happy ones. The match between current mood and the memories retrieved is called this.
Mood congruency
Before an IQ test's scores can be compared with anyone else's, researchers conduct this process by giving it to a large group that represents the population, creating a normal curve.
Standardization
In Elizabeth Loftus' famous studies, participants who were asked how fast cars were going when they smashed into each other reported higher speeds than those for whom the word "contacted" was used, exemplifying this memory distortion effect.
Misinformation effect
Getting a speeding ticket seems like a punishment, but in operant terms you can't label any consequence as reinforcement or punishment until you know this.
The effect it has on behavior
Samson can take a 3-hour train or make a 6-hour drive, but he just watched news footage of a train derailment. If the availability heuristic guides him, he'll make this choice.
Drive
A concussed football player can't remember the plays from the minutes just before the hit, probably because those memories never finished consolidating, resulting in this type of amnesia.
Retrograde amnesia
An online personality quiz gives you the same result every time you take it, but its results don't predict how you actually behave. The quiz has this property but lacks that one.
Reliability; Validity
In his famous forgetting curve study, Ebbinghaus used maintenance rehearsal. This type of encoding would produce a different shape of forgetting curve.
Elaborative rehearsal
Every time Dev eats at a seafood shack lit with flickering neon, the shellfish makes him nauseous. Now, flickering neon anywhere makes him queasy, even with no food around. Name all four: the US, the UR, the CS, and the CR.
US = shellfish
UR = nausea
CS = flickering lights
CR = nausea
Ana and Ben both skip the same roller coaster, thinking it's too risky. Ana remembers a news story about a coaster accident; Ben gets a sick, uneasy feeling just looking at it. Name the shortcut each one is using.
Ana = availability heuristic
Ben = affect heuristic
H.M. has anterograde amnesia, preventing him from forming any explicit memories. However, he can learn puzzles, suggesting this type of memory is left in tact.
Procedural memory
Fraternal twins and ordinary siblings share about half their genes, yet fraternal twins' IQs correlate more strongly, even when reared together. Researchers attribute the gap to this.
More similar environments/same age at the same time