Bones and Cartilage
What are the structural and functional classifications of joints?
Functional:
Synarthrosis (little/no mobility), Amphiarthrosis (slight mobility), Diarthrosis (Freely movable)
Structural:
Sinovial (not directly joined), Fibrous (joined by dense fibrous connective tissue), Cartilaginous (joined by cartilage)
What are the differences between innate and adaptive immunity?
(Speed of response / Variation over time / Means of recognising pathogens / Number of molecules recognised / Change during response)
Innate Immunity:
Rapid (within hours), No change over lifetime, Class of molecules shared by groups of microbes, Only a few, Constant.
Adaptive Immunity:
Slow (days/weeks), Changes with exposure to microbes, Unique molecules on particular pathogens, Almost finite number, Improves during response.
Why are neutrophils predominantly seen in acute inflammation?
They are the most abundant (50-70% WBC)
Get excited very fast ("primed" state)
Short life span (1-2 days)
What system do the following symptoms belong to:
Dyspnoea, Syncope, Fatigue, Recurrent infections, Enlarged lymph nodes, Unexplained bruising, Thromboembolism
Haematological System
What are the 4 cell types in bones and their function?
Osteoprogenitor cells: Maintain the ability to undergo mitosis (differentiate into osteoblasts).
Osteoblasts: Produce new bone matrix (osteogenesis and ossification) and synthesise and release proteins and organic components.
Osteocytes: Mature bone cells, Occur in lacunae (pockets) sandwiched between layers of matrix. Recycle calcium salts and help repair damaged bone.
Osteoclasts: Remove bone matrix. Important in calcium and phosphate regulation.
At 4 months post conception, "X??" begins to rapidly rise as the primary producer of hematopoietic cells.
BONUS: Where are hematopoietic cells first produced in the foetus?
Bone Marrow
BONUS: Yolk sac
What is the sequence of inflammation?
1. Presence of stimulus
2. Vascular changes (Vasodialation and premiability)
3. Cellular Events (Recruitment, Recognition, Removal)
4. Resolution (Repair)
Polyuria means...
Increased volume of urine
Calcium Homeostasis:
What occurs when there is an INCREASE in blood calcium (Ca2+) levels?
Calcitonin released from the thyroid gland --> Increase osteoblast activity --> New bone synthesis (mineralised matrix) --> Decrease blood Ca2+
What is the main structure and function of CD56 bright NK cells?
Structure: Expresses a lot of CD56 bright markers, and only a few CD16 dim/neg markers.
Function: Increased cytokine production (Eg, gamma-IFN), recruits/regulates dendrites, macrophages and T-cells to clean and destroy viral cells, POORLY CYTOTOXIC (Low levels of perforin and granzymes).
1. Rubor (Redness): Vasodilatation.
2. Tumor (Swelling): Leakage of cells + plasma + proteins.
3. Calor (Heat): Chemical mediators (IL-1Beta and IL-18).
4. Dolor (Pain): Stretching of pain receptors and nerves by inflammatory exudate.
5. Functio Laesa (Loss of Function): Loss of tissue due to injury or repair by fibrosis.
Another word for difficulty swallowing is...
Dysphagia
What are the two ways cartilage can grow?
Appositional Growth: Growth from outside. Chondroblasts lay down new layers of matrix added to the pre-existing matrix.
Interstitial Growth: Growth from within. Chondrocytes within the cartilage secrete new matrix.
If someone's blood test reveals an increased quantity of neutrophils that have two lobes that are slightly connected, what does this signify?
Increased Band Immature Neutrophils
Myelocyte --> Metamyelocyte --> Band Neutrophil --> Mature Segmented Neutrophil
Shift Left = Clinical sign of infection (Inflammation, Leukemia, Bone Marrow Damage)
Causes (Stimuli) of chronic inflammation? (HINT: 3)
- Persistent infection: Need intracellular killing and evoke T-cell-dependent delayed HS (delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions).
- Prolonged exposure to toxins/foreign material: Non-degradable and therefore cannot be broken down.
- Immune-mediated: Autoantigens evoke self-perpetuating immune reactions leading to tissue damage and persistent inflammation.
What are missing from the following system (HINT: Multiple):
- Neck swelling, Dysphagia, Anxiety, Bowel changes, Weight changes, Temperature changes, Energy levels, Polyuria, Polydipsia, Poor wound healing...
Tremors
Palpitations
Blurred Vision
What are the 4 structures of a typical long bone?
- Diaphysis: Shaft of long bone
- Epiphysis: Rounded ends of bone
- Epiphyseal line/plate: Region of growth
- Metaphysis: Region where diaphysis and epiphysis meet
Post-sensitisation, mast cells now have High-affinity IgE receptors.
Cross-linked activated receptors --> Signal is transmitted --> Release of preformed granules (containing histamine), causing DEGRANULATION!
During the effector phase of TB, what do T-Helper cells (TH1) release to activate macrophages?
Gamma-IFN (Gamma Interferon)
What is the FIRST thing you do when you enter the room?
SANITIZE YOUR HANDS!!!