Abnormal exam

Models of Psychopathology

100

Contrast One-Dimensional models vs multidimensional models

A one-dimensional model explains psychopathology using a single cause, such as biology, environment, or learning history.

While, a multidimensional model considers multiple influences, including biological, psychological, social, and cultural factors.

200

Developmental psychopathology perspective

The developmental psychopathology perspective examines how psychological disorders emerge over time, emphasizing the interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors.

300

Define equifinality and multifinality

Equifinality refers to the idea that different experiences or risk factors can lead to the same psychological disorder.

Multifinality means that the same early experiences can lead to different outcomes.

400

Describe the biopsychosocial model

The biopsychosocial model is a comprehensive approach to understanding psychopathology by integrating biological, psychological, and social factors.

500

Describe the diathesis-stress model

The diathesis-stress model explains mental disorders as the result of a mix of two things:

1. Diathesis (vulnerability) – A person’s built-in risk, like genetics or personality traits.
2. Stress – Life challenges, such as trauma, loss, or major changes.

Types of Clinical Assessments

100

Personality Inventories 

• Focus: Assess broad personality traits and psychological functioning.
• Data Collected: Patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across different situations.
• Strengths: Standardized, reliable, and valid; provides objective results.
• Limitations: Self-report bias; may not capture situational or cultural differences in personality expression.

200

Intelligence tests

• Focus: Measure intellectual abilities such as reasoning, problem-solving, and verbal skills. 
• Data Collected: IQ scores that assess cognitive strengths and weaknesses.
• Strengths: Standardized and well-researched; useful for diagnosing intellectual disabilities and giftedness.
• Limitations: Does not capture all types of intelligence; cultural and language biases may affect results.

300

Response inventories

• Focus: Measure specific areas of functioning, such as emotions, social skills, or cognitive patterns. 
• Data Collected: Self-reported symptoms, thoughts, or behaviors related to a particular psychological issue.
• Strengths: Quick, easy to administer, and focused on specific concerns.
• Limitations: Can be influenced by self-report bias (people may exaggerate or underreport symptoms).

400

Projective tests

• Focus: Uncover unconscious thoughts, emotions, and conflicts through ambiguous stimuli. 
• Data Collected: Responses that reveal underlying personality dynamics, fears, and internal conflicts.
• Strengths: Provides insights into unconscious processes and may uncover thoughts that clients are unaware of or unwilling to share directly.
• Limitations: Low reliability and validity; interpretation is subjective and may vary between clinicians.

500

Neuropsychological Tests

• Focus: Assess brain function and cognitive deficits due to neurological conditions (e.g., brain injuries, dementia). 
• Data Collected: Cognitive performance in areas like memory, attention, problem-solving, and motor skills.
• Strengths: Helps identify brain damage or dysfunction and guides treatment planning.
• Limitations: Time-consuming and may require specialized training to administer and interpret correctly.

Clinical Treatments

100

Frank’s essential features of therapy

• A Suffering Person Seeks Help – The client experiences distress and seeks relief from a professional.
• A Trained, Socially Accepted Healer – The therapist has expertise and is recognized as someone who can help.
• A Healing Relationship – The interaction between the therapist and client fosters trust, support, and emotional expression.
• A Therapeutic Ritual or Framework – Therapy follows a structured method, such as talk therapy, cognitive exercises, or behavioral techniques, that both client and therapist believe in.

200

How does treatment include both idiographic and nomothetic information?

Idiographic Information refers to individual-specific details about a person’s unique experiences, symptoms, personality, and life history.

Nomothetic Information refers to general principles and research-based findings that apply to broader groups.

By integrating both, clinicians can apply scientific knowledge while personalizing therapy to fit an individual’s unique situation, leading to more effective treatment outcomes.

300

Effectiveness of treatment and is psychotherapy generally effective?

Psychotherapy is generally effective, especially when it is evidence-based and tailored to the individual’s needs.

Several factors influence the effectiveness of therapy:

1. Type of Therapy
2. Client-Therapist Relationship
3. Severity of the Issue
4. Client Engagement

400

Different settings where treatment can take place and the different modalities it can take on

Settings for Treatment:

1. Private Practice 
2. Outpatient Clinics 
3. Inpatient Hospitals 
4. Residential Treatment Centers 
5. Online Therapy

Modalities of Treatment:

1. Individual Therapy 
2. Group Therapy 
3. Family Therapy 
4. Couples Therapy 
5. Community-Based Therapy

500

what are some barriers to treatment utilization

1. Stigma 
2. Cost 
3. Lack of Access 
4. Lack of Awareness 
5. Cultural and Language Barriers 
6. Time and Convenience 
7. Fear or Distrust of Therapy 
8. Severity of the Problem
9. Denial  

Anxiety Disorders

100

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Clinical Picture:
  GAD involves excessive, uncontrollable worry about a variety of life events or activities. The worry is disproportionate to the actual likelihood of the event occurring and is difficult to control.

• Diagnostic Criteria:

  • Excessive anxiety and worry occurring more days than not for at least 6 months.
  • Difficulty controlling the worry.
  • Three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbances.

• Symptoms:

  • Chronic worry about work, health, social interactions, or daily tasks.
  • Physical symptoms like muscle tension, fatigue, irritability, and sleep problems.

• Development:

  • Typically develops in childhood or adolescence, but it can start at any age. It is chronic, with symptoms waxing and waning throughout life.

200

Specific Phobias

Clinical Picture:
Specific phobias involve intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation. The person avoids encountering the phobic stimulus or endures it with extreme anxiety.

• Diagnostic Criteria:

  • Marked fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (e.g., animals, heights, flying).
  • The object or situation almost always provokes immediate fear or anxiety.
  • The phobic situation is actively avoided or endured with intense fear or anxiety.
  • The fear is out of proportion to the actual danger posed.

• Symptoms:

  • Panic-like symptoms (e.g., rapid heartbeat, sweating) when exposed to the phobic stimulus.
  • Avoidance behavior, such as staying away from places or activities that might trigger the phobia.

• Development:

  • Typically develops in childhood, often after a traumatic or frightening experience. It can be lifelong or may diminish with age.

300

Agoraphobia

• Clinical Picture:
  Agoraphobia is the fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable if a panic attack occurs. It is often associated with a history of panic attacks.

• Diagnostic Criteria:

  • Marked fear or anxiety about two or more of the following situations: using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed spaces, standing in line or being in a crowd, or being outside the home alone.
  • The person avoids these situations due to fear of having a panic attack or being unable to escape.
  • The avoidance behavior significantly interferes with daily functioning.

• Symptoms:

  • Fear of situations where escape may not be possible, such as crowded places or public transport.
  • Symptoms can range from mild (avoiding certain places) to severe (staying home most of the time).

• Development:

  • Often develops in late adolescence or early adulthood, typically after experiencing panic attacks. It can be triggered by stressful events.

400

Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)

• Clinical Picture:
  Social anxiety disorder involves intense fear of being judged or scrutinized in social or performance situations, leading to avoidance of social interactions or significant distress during them.

• Diagnostic Criteria:

  • Marked fear or anxiety about social situations where the individual may be scrutinized by others.
  • Fear of negative evaluation or embarrassment in social or performance situations.
  • Avoidance of social situations or enduring them with extreme anxiety.

• Symptoms:

  • Trembling, blushing, sweating, or feeling nauseous when facing social situations.
  • Intense fear of being judged or embarrassed, leading to avoidance of social gatherings.

• Development:

  • Typically begins in childhood or adolescence, often after a negative social experience. It can persist into adulthood if untreated.

500

Panic Disorder

• Clinical Picture:
  Panic disorder involves recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, which are sudden surges of intense fear or discomfort that peak within minutes. The fear is often out of proportion to the actual situation.

• Diagnostic Criteria:

  • Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks (at least one of the attacks is followed by 1 month or more of persistent concern about having more attacks or significant maladaptive behavior changes).
  • Symptoms of a panic attack include rapid heart rate, sweating, shaking, shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness, chills, and fear of losing control or dying.

• Symptoms:

  • Sudden and overwhelming fear or discomfort.
  • Physical symptoms like heart palpitations, chest pain, dizziness, shortness of breath, and fear of death.
  • Persistent worry about having another panic attack, leading to behavior changes (e.g., avoiding places where attacks have occurred).

• Development:

  • Panic disorder often begins in late adolescence or early adulthood and can be triggered by stress, trauma, or major life changes.

Clinical Diagnosis

100

Categorical Classification

• Definition: This approach classifies mental disorders into distinct categories, similar to medical diagnoses. A person either has the disorder or does not, based on specific criteria.
• Example: The DSM-5 uses a categorical system where a person must meet a set number of criteria to be diagnosed with a disorder (e.g., Major Depressive Disorder requires at least five of nine symptoms).
• Strengths: Provides clear-cut diagnoses that can aid in treatment planning and communication among professionals.
• Limitations: Overly simplistic and may not capture the complexity or severity differences of symptoms.

200

Characteristics of the DSM (e.g., purpose, how many versions there have been)

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is used to classify, diagnose, and guide treatment for mental health conditions based on standardized criteria.There have been five major editions. Uses a categorical approach to diagnosis.

300

Dimensional Classification

Definition: Disorders are viewed along a spectrum, where symptoms vary in intensity rather than being classified as present or absent.

• Example: Instead of diagnosing depression as a "yes or no" condition, a dimensional approach would rate symptoms on a scale of severity (e.g., mild, moderate, severe).
• Strengths: Captures individual differences and recognizes that symptoms exist on a continuum rather than in rigid categories.
• Limitations: Can be more complex to apply and may lack clear diagnostic thresholds for treatment decisions.

400

Prototypical Classification

• Definition: Combines aspects of both categorical and dimensional approaches by providing a "prototype" of a disorder, where a person must meet core features but may have variability in other symptoms.
• Example: In DSM-5, schizophrenia is diagnosed based on core symptoms (e.g., delusions, hallucinations), but individuals may have different combinations of additional symptoms.
• Strengths: Allows for flexibility while maintaining a structured diagnostic system.
• Limitations: Can still be somewhat arbitrary in determining how many symptoms are necessary for a diagnosis.

500

 Organization that publishes the DSM vs. ICD

• DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) – Published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). It is primarily used in the U.S. for diagnosing mental disorders.
• ICD (International Classification of Diseases) – Published by the World Health Organization (WHO). It covers both mental and physical health conditions and is used globally for medical classification and billing.