Social Identity
Describe two examples of social identities. [4]
class; gender; age; ethnicity; religion; subcultures; any other appropriate identity.
1 mark for identifying an example of social identity. 1 mark for describing the example of social identity.
Explain two ways sociological research may be affected by bias. [8]
Personal values of the sociologist – choice of topic, methods and interpretation, researcher imposition, theoretical stance; Collection of data – e.g. choice of questions to ask in an interview; The effect of the researcher on the respondent – Hawthorne effect, social desirability – the responses of an interviewer may affect the answers given etc.; Funding and/or other institutional support for research; Processing of data – Interpretation and presentation of findings may be influenced by beliefs – researcher imposition; Selection of sample.
Explain two reasons questionnaires are considered high in reliability. [8]
• Can be completed without a researcher present / likely to get similar results if repeated by a different researcher.
• Respondents asked same questions in the same order / easily repeated.
• Usually have closed questions / fixed responses / generate quantitative data / easier to analyse.
• Can be used to collect data from a large sample / less likely the findings are the result of an untypical sample.
Irving Goffman
Interactionist; dramaturgical approach— Approach where individuals create images of themselves in the same way that actors perform a role in front of an audience
Describe two characteristics of youth identity. [4]
Rebellion and resistance (often to social control); Seeking fun and excitement, and experimentation; Concern with image and consumption; Focus on education; Focus on the use of technology especially digital media; Use of language e.g. slang, figures of speech; Role confusion
Describe two features of longitudinal studies. [4]
Research done over a long period of time; Research done on the same sample; Repeated at regular intervals; Measures changes/trends/relationships over time; Answers cause and effect questions. Can be quantitative or qualitative or both (a clear link must be made to longitudinal studies to receive credit); Sample attrition (participants drop out of the study); High cost – few organisations can afford to fund such lengthy studies; Types e.g. cohort or panel studies; Sample size can vary but typically they are large.
Explain two features of the positivist approach to sociological research. [8]
• Use of scientific approach.
• Use of quantitative data/methods.
• Studying the social world in terms of laws of cause and effect.
• Using research questions can test and retest hypotheses.
• Collecting data that enables comparisons across groups and over time (patterns and trends).
• Focus on gaining data that is high in reliability.
• Use of large research populations to produce representative results.
• Objective approach to research.
Max Weber
1) German sociologist that, amongst many other foundational ideas, took issue with Marx's focus on economic class as the main driver of inequality in society.
2) Verstehen
Evaluate the view that qualitative methods are unsuitable for sociological research because they lack reliability.
IN SUPPORT:
Qualitative data cannot be easily replicated and so lacks reliability (positivist view); The data from qualitative methods lack objectivity are value laden and subjective; Respondents in qualitative research are likely to be influenced by the presence of the researcher as there is a closer connection between them. This is more likely to lead to researcher bias; Researcher imposition; The small numbers involved often leads to unrepresentative samples; Practical considerations – time, money etc; There are sometimes ethical problems linked to qualitative methods.
AGAINST:
The interpretivist view that qualitative methods are suitable for study of human behaviour as they allow you to understand the reasons behind behaviour; Qualitative methods produce highly valid data that explores the subjective meanings actors hold from their point of view; Variables in the social world cannot be controlled; Give more control to the subjects / less imposition from the researcher; Humans have free will and their behaviour cannot be measured (rebuttal of the scientific approach); Some qualitative methods arguably lead to a measure of reliability in the data produced e.g. semi- structured interviews, structured observations.
‘Socialisation is a one-way process.’ Using sociological material, give one argument against this view. [6]
People actively participate in learning culture and don’t simply accept what they are told e.g. media messages can be interpreted in an active way i.e. they are not simply absorbed and accepted.
Interactionists, in particular, reject the view that socialisation is simply a one way process: individuals are active in making sense of the world and in shaping their own identity and are not passive actors e.g. Mead’s concept of the ‘social self’ as created through social interaction, looking glass self.
Different agents of socialisation reinforce different and sometimes conflicting values, e.g. religion, subcultures, and some forms of media.
People may resist or deviate from the norms and values they are taught through socialisation, e.g. for social resistance or due to marginalisation.
Explain two features of the positivist approach to sociological research. [8]
• Use of scientific approach.
• Use of quantitative data/methods.
• Studying the social world in terms of laws of cause and effect.
• Using research questions can test and retest hypotheses.
• Collecting data that enables comparisons across groups and over time (patterns and trends).
• Focus on gaining data that is high in reliability.
• Use of large research populations to produce representative results.
• Objective approach to research.
• Any other appropriate characteristic.
a sample in which respondents are asked to identify additional members of a population
What is a snowball sample?
Leon Kuczynski
Primary socialisation is a process through which parents aim to introduce cultural continuity and competence into their children
Evaluate the view that social class is no longer an important influence on a person’s identity.
IN SUPPORT: Evidence that class identity has
disappeared; Social changes, especially in relation to work and migration (social mobility), have led to a blurring of boundaries with identity much more individualistic – ‘we’re all middle class now.’; Class a dated and over- deterministic concept; Identity now linked to consumption, leisure and lifestyle choices; Subjective view; Replaced in importance by other forms of identity e.g. gender, etc.
AGAINST:
Evidence of diverse social characteristics between class groups i.e. it may be fragmenting but not disappearing.
Class identity can still be linked to different socialisation experiences for each.
Social class remains critical influence on attitudes and values and predictor of behaviour e.g. education, politics (voting), workplace, peer groups, cultural consumption etc.
Survey evidence that people identify themselves in class terms.
Many sociologists point to objective differences between class groups linked to work and income.
Structural differences persist i.e. life chances still class based.
Even those rejecting class labels recognise that class is an important ‘structural’ force in theirs and other people’s lives (Savage).
'Education is the most important influence on class identity.' Explain this view. [10]
• The role played by the formal and informal (hidden) curriculum in the transmission of class-based norms, values and roles.
• Use of cultural and / or social capital (Bourdieu) within schools (ways of acting, attitudes and lifestyle) and social capital (networks of influence).
• Failure / success at school can shape a person’s perception of their social class identity.
• Private education, especially public schools followed by Oxbridge – contributes to membership of elite occupational groups in society (judiciary, military, politics) and sense of leadership and self-confidence.
• Exclusive social networks – peer groups formed in schools / university (‘old boys’ network’) that provide self-help contacts in later life.
• Any other reasonable point.
Explain two strengths of using an overt approach to participant observation. [6]
• low personal involvement.
• Research carried out in a ‘natural environment’ – high in ecological validity.
• Ethical reasons: safeguards the consent of those being observed.
• Avert the possibility of ‘going native’.
• Easier to avoid being drawn into any illegal / unethical behaviour of the group.
• Practical reasons: easier for researcher to make notes while observing.
• Allows researcher the opportunity to ask questions.
• Makes withdrawal from the group straightforward.
a systematic analysis of the content rather than the structure of a communication, such as a written work, speech, or film
What is content analysis?
Candland
observed that feral children are often ignorant of language and seem to have been internalized by imitation the behavior of the animals they have spent time with. Useful when discussing the important role played by primary socialization into a "Civilized society.”
Evaluate the view that the main influence on choice of research method is the theoretical perspective of the sociologist.
IN SUPPORT
• The theoretical stance of
the researcher in shaping
choice of method may be
decisive.
• Positivists choose methods
that produce quantitative
data (e.g. questionnaires
and official statistics), as
they consider such methods
to be more scientific and
reliable.
• Interpretivist choose
methods that produce
qualitative data, such as
interviews or observations
as they consider such
methods more likely to be in
depth and valid.
• Feminist methodology
focuses on the failure of
traditional theories to take
account of the position of
women in how research is
conducted.
• Research that is instigated
by the sociologist on their
own account, without direct
sponsorship from outside
bodies is more likely to be
influenced by the theoretical
concerns of the sociologist
in terms of choice of
research method.
AGAINST:
• Time – often linked to
money. Many methods /
approaches can take
considerable time e.g.
longitudinal studies.
• Money – often linked to
funding source; some
methods are cheap.
• Location.
• Sample issues: size,
access, cooperation.
• Nature of the study
group / topic e.g. if they
are easier to access
such as poor /
powerless groups.
• Researcher’s skill set
e.g. the difficulties
involved in conducting
different types of
observation.
• Ethical considerations.
• Researcher’s /
sponsor’s values and
ideological perspectives
may be a key influence
on research methods.
• Time – often linked to
money. Many methods /
approaches can take
considerable time e.g.
longitudinal studies.
• Money – often linked to
funding source; some
methods are cheap.
• Location.
• Sample issues: size,
access, cooperation.
• Nature of the study
group / topic e.g. if they
are easier to access
such as poor /
powerless groups.
• Researcher’s skill set
e.g. the difficulties
involved in conducting
different types of
observation.
• Ethical considerations.
• Researcher’s /
sponsor’s values and
ideological perspectives
may be a key influence
on research methods.
Describe two features of working-class identity. [4]
• Emphasis placed on kinship, extended family networks.
• Collective values.
• Stress on community.
• Attitudes towards education – instant gratification, fatalism, ascribed status.
• Experience of workplace, especially manual labour and the [collective] nature of work.
• Solidarity – trade union membership and political affiliation; ‘us v them.’
• Greater gender segregation in family and leisure.
• The ‘new’ working class – privatised/home-centred, instrumental.
Explain two features of the interpretivist approach to research. [8]
A concern with the subjective meanings and interpretations individuals put on actions; Rejection of the scientific method and its use of quantitative data; A recognition that people exercise free will and are unpredictable; Scepticism about objectivity/value freedom; Using qualitative methods to understand the complexity of the social world; An attempt to achieve verstehen (empathetic understanding); Any other appropriate feature; Building a rapport/connection with subject of study; Studying the way of life of the study group by observing them in their natural environment; Focus on gaining data that is high in validity; Subjective approach to research; Focus on agency over structure
‘The family is the main influence on gender identity’. Explain this view. [10]
Play and early learning; Role-models within the family; Differential treatment/rules for girls and boys by parents and other family members; Dress codes for boys and girls; Differentiated toys, games and activities; Different language used to speak to/describe boys and girls
Cooley
Developed the looking glass self; A person's self grows out of a person's social interactions with others. Our view of ourselves does not come from who we really are, but rather from how we BELIEVE others see us.
Evaluate the view that the extent to which ethnic identities are changing has been exaggerated.
SUPPORT:
• Emergence of hybrid identities (mix of two or
more identities.) has been overstated – cultural differences between groups remain and, in many cases, may be hardening.(Jacobson)
• Rejection of the idea that identity is simply a matter of personal choice: it is As likely to be a response to racism / ’fitting in’ / playing down their own ethnicity and culture to gain acceptance rather than as a preferred option.
• Examples of ethnicity being asserted as statement of difference e.g. Mirza on female British Muslims wearing the hijab to distinguish their identity and being generally more religious than their parents. Black youth more inclined to use Patois as a way to actively assert their ethnic identity in opposition to others. (Modood)
• Awareness of the role played by structure and agency in relation to identity.
AGAINST:
• Ethnic identity is becoming
harder to identify i.e. the
traditional markers of
ethnicity (traditions,
language, diet, dress,
religion etc.) that give
cultural groups a sense of
identity are breaking
down.
• Globalisation, diaspora,
assimilation and inter-
ethnic relationships as
factors driving change.
• New / hybrid forms
emerging – the option to
adopt multiple identities
depending on the social
context e.g. ‘Brasian’,
‘white mask’, code
switching etc. (Johal,
Butler, Hall)
• Music, clothing, language
and diet as cultural
elements that are subject
to a ‘pick and mix’
approach. White youth are
also subject to this.
• Concept of hybridity as a
counterpoint to the
simplistic idea of ‘caught
between two cultures’ –
fusion not confusion.
• Potential links to
supporting theory e.g.
postmodernism.