Althusser
According to Althusser, what influences human action more than individual motivation?
Social structure influences human action more than individual motivation.
Who conducted the research presented in Learning to Labour?
Paul Willis conducted the research.
How do both Willis and Althusser view the role of education in society?
Both view education as a tool for reinforcing dominant ideologies and sustaining the existing social structure.
How does Althusser’s view of ideology differ from Willis’s perspective on “lad culture”?
Althusser views ideology as a structured, pervasive force across multiple institutions (ISAs), whereas Willis focuses specifically on how “lad culture” influences attitudes within the school setting.
What is the role of the Ideological State Apparatus (ISA) in capitalist society?
The role of the ISA is to support the capitalist structure by shaping individuals to uphold the existing social order.
How many boys did Willis study, and where was the study conducted?
He studied 12 boys in an all-boys school in the Midlands, known as “Hammertown Boys.”
What do Willis’s concept of “lad culture” and Althusser’s “Ideological State Apparatuses” (ISAs) suggest about the influence of ideology?
Both suggest that ideology is embedded within social institutions, influencing individuals beliefs and behaviours.
What is a difference in how Willis and Althusser see the function of social institutions?
Althusser sees social institutions like education as ideologically shaping all individuals systematically, while Willis focuses on how specific subcultures, like the “lads,” actively resist traditional academic success.
Which institutions are considered part of the ISA?
Schools, media, and families are examples of institutions considered part of the ISA.
What methods did Willis use in his research?
He used a mix of overt participant observations and periodic interviews.
How do Willis and Althusser perceive the way ideologies shape individuals’ perspectives on work?
Both argue that ideologies shape individuals to accept certain types of work as appropriate or valuable, often aligning with the interests of the ruling class.
How does the concept of resistance differ between Willis and Althusser’s theories?
Willis shows that the “lads” resist mainstream educational values, whereas Althusser’s theory implies that ideology is internalised through ISAs, with less emphasis on individual resistance.
How does the ISA influence individuals’ beliefs and values?
The ISA influences individuals subtly and persuasively by shaping their beliefs, values, and identities to align with the interests of the ruling class.
What did the boys think of school and qualifications?
They believed school was irrelevant, and that manual factory jobs were superior to academic work.
What do both Willis’s and Althusser’s theories imply about individual agency within ideological structures?
Both imply that individuals are heavily influenced by societal ideologies, which shape their perceptions and limit true autonomy.
How does Althusser’s concept of “interpellation” contrast with Willis’s observations of individual agency?
Althusser’s “interpellation” suggests people are unconsciously shaped by ideology, whereas Willis observes that the “lads” consciously reject the academic ideology but still end up in manual labour, aligning with the status quo.
What is the ultimate aim of the ISA in making people accept the existing social order?
The ultimate aim of the ISA is to make individuals believe that the existing social order is legitimate and natural, as if it were "common sense."
How did the lads differentiate themselves from conformist students?
They identified against conformist students by smoking, and viewing school as a place to “have a laugh.”
In what way do both Willis and Althusser believe ideologies affect the maintenance of social order?
Both believe ideologies perpetuate social order by conditioning people to accept existing social hierarchies and roles.
What is a difference in how Willis and Althusser address the impact of ideology on different social classes?
Althusser’s theory applies broadly across classes, explaining how all individuals are shaped by ISAs, while Willis specifically analyses working-class boys, examining how ideology affects them within a subcultural context.