Circulatory System
What are the main components of blood?
What is red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, & platelets
What does salivary amylase do?
What is starts breaking down carbs (starches) in your mouth into a smaller molecule, maltose.
How does the medulla oblongata detect changes in pH or Co2?
What is through CSF fluid (Cerebrospinal fluid)
What happens during the filtration process in the kidneys?
What is during filtration, blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery and passes through the glomerulus, where high pressure forces water, salts, glucose, amino acids, and waste products like urea into the Bowman's capsule. Larger molecules like proteins and blood cells stay in the blood. This filtered fluid is called glomerular filtrate.
What are the 5 essential organs?
What is heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, brain
What happens in the QRS segment of an EKG?
What is when ventricles are contracting, or pumping blood.
Describe the role of bile in the digestion of fats.
What is bile is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. When fatty food enters the small intestine, bile is released into the duodenum. Its main role is to emulsify fats, breaking them down into smaller droplets. This increases the surface area for the enzyme lipase to further digest the fats into fatty acids and glycerol, which are then absorbed.
What is tidal volume and how much is usually involved in this?
What is volume of air moved into or out of the lungs during breathing. It measures around 500 mL in an average healthy adult male and approximately 400 mL in a healthy female.
Why is ADH released?
What is ADH (antidiuretic hormone) is released by the pituitary gland in response to high blood osmolarity (concentration of solutes like salt) or low blood volume. It helps regulate water balance by signaling the kidneys to retain water, which concentrates the urine and decreases urine output to prevent dehydration.
What is B antigen and A antibodies
Describe the role of capillaries
What is they are the smallest blood vessels and their job is to connect arteries and veins and facilitate the exchange of substances between blood and tissues. They bring nutrients and oxygen to cells in your organs and body systems, in exchange they also carry away tissue waste products like carbon dioxide.
What enzymes are involved in the digestion of proteins, and where do they work?
What is the digestion of proteins involves several key enzymes. Pepsin is secreted in the stomach as an inactive enzyme called pepsinogen. When exposed to the acidic environment of the stomach, pepsinogen is converted into pepsin, which begins breaking proteins down into smaller polypeptides. In the small intestine, enzymes such as trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are secreted by the pancreas, continue breaking down these polypeptides into smaller peptides. Carboxypeptidase, another pancreatic enzyme, works to remove amino acids from the ends of these smaller peptides. Finally, peptidases, which are enzymes found in the brush border of the small intestine, break down these peptides into individual amino acids that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
What is and happens during hyperventilation with Co2?
What is when you breathe rapidly and shallowly. As you breathe out more Co2 than normal, your blood Co2 levels decrease, making blood become more alkaline ( higher pH ). The decrease in Co2 can cause blood vessels to constrict, leading to reduced blood flow. Your body tries to compensate by slowing breathing. It also causes lightheadedness, chest pain and feeling like you're out of breath.
What are the factors that contribute to the formation of uric acid kidney stones, and how can diet influence this process?
What is uric acid kidney stones form when there are high levels of uric acid in the urine, often due to dehydration or a diet high in purines found in red meat, seafood, and alcohol. Conditions like obesity, gout, and high blood pressure can also increase the risk of stone formation. A diet low in purines, staying hydrated, and maintaining a healthy weight can help reduce the likelihood of developing uric acid stones.
What is the primary function of the sinoatrial (SA) node in the heart, and how does it affect the heart rate?
What is the sinoatrial (SA) node is located in the right atrium of the heart and serves as the natural pacemaker. It generates electrical impulses that initiate each heartbeat, causing the atria to contract. These impulses travel through the heart, setting the rhythm and influencing the heart rate, typically around 60–100 beats per minute in a healthy adult.
Describe pulmonary circulation
what is the circulation of blood, heart to lungs and back to heart via Vena cava, right artery, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary semilunar valve, pulmonary arteries, pulmonary arterioles in lungs, Pulmonary capillaries in lungs, ( capillary exchange vessels, picking up oxygen and dropping off Co2-oxygenation process alveoli does it), pulmonary venules, pulmonary vein ( ONLY VEIN TO CARRY OXYGENATED BLOOD-red), left atrium, mitral valve, left ventricle.
How does the pancreas regulate blood glucose levels through the hormones insulin and glucagon?
What is the pancreas plays a critical role in regulating blood glucose levels through two hormones: insulin and glucagon. After a meal, when blood glucose levels are high, the pancreas releases insulin, which helps cells take in glucose from the blood to use for energy or to store as glycogen. This lowers the blood glucose level. Later, when blood glucose levels drop, such as between meals or during fasting, the pancreas releases glucagon. Glucagon signals the liver to break down stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream, raising blood glucose levels. This balancing act between insulin and glucagon helps keep blood glucose levels stable, ensuring the body has a constant supply of energy.
How does the body respond to lower oxygen levels at high altitudes? Include the roles of chemoreceptors, the respiratory system, and the kidneys.
What is at high altitudes, the lower oxygen levels are detected by chemoreceptors in the brain, which trigger an increase in breathing rate to take in more oxygen. The kidneys respond by releasing erythropoietin (EPO), which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more red blood cells to carry oxygen more efficiently. Over time, these adjustments help the body adapt to the reduced oxygen availability.
Describe hemodialysis
What is hemodialysis is a medical treatment that helps filter waste, excess fluids, and salt from the blood when the kidneys aren't working properly. During the process, blood is removed from the body, cleaned through a machine, and then returned to the body. The hemodialysis machine acts as an artificial kidney. It has a blood pump that moves the blood into a dialyzer, which is the filter. Inside the dialyzer, a semipermeable membrane allows waste, excess fluids, and salts to pass into a cleaning solution called dialysate, while the cleaned blood flows back into the body. This helps maintain the balance of important substances in the blood, like electrolytes and fluids.
Describe how they keep hearts alive for transplants.
What is to keep hearts alive for transplants, doctors either use cold storage or machine perfusion. Cold storage involves flushing the heart with a preservation solution and keeping it on ice to slow metabolism, typically lasting 4–6 hours. Newer systems like the Organ Care System keep the heart warm and beating by circulating oxygenated blood, extending preservation time and allowing real-time monitoring. This newer method can also revive hearts from donors after circulatory death.
What is Coronary artery disease and how would a doctor fix it?
What is a buildup of plaque in coronary arteries, causing the space to narrow, limiting blood flow to coronary arteries and oxygen. Most common way to fix is angioplasty. Angioplasty is a small incision and run up into femoral artery or radial artery into aorta into heart, find blockage send balloon blow it up, to squish plaque then a stent to hold it open, if it doesn’t work, they do a coronary bypass, take a vein from somewhere else and stitch it onto aorta for a different path, creating a new path for blood to go around a blocked or partially blocked artery in the heart, and get to the heart.
Explain the complete chemical digestion and absorption of proteins from the moment they are ingested until they are absorbed into the bloodstream.
What is the digestion of proteins begins in the mouth with mechanical breakdown by chewing and saliva to form a bolus, but no chemical digestion occurs here. In the stomach, gastric juices containing hydrochloric acid (HCl) activate pepsinogen into pepsin, which breaks proteins into smaller polypeptides. The stomach also churns food into a semi-liquid called chyme. When chyme enters the small intestine, the pancreas secretes enzymes like trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase to further break down polypeptides into smaller peptides and amino acids. In the jejunum and ileum, these amino acids and peptides are absorbed through the intestinal walls using active transport. The absorbed nutrients enter the blood capillaries and travel to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. The liver uses these amino acids for protein synthesis or converts them into glucose or fat if necessary. Excess nitrogen is removed from amino acids and converted into urea, which is excreted by the kidneys.
Explain how the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contribute to the mechanics of breathing. What would happen to breathing if the phrenic nerve, which controls the diaphragm, were damaged?
What is the diaphragm contracts and flattens during inhalation, increasing thoracic cavity volume and lowering lung pressure, which allows air to enter. The intercostal muscles also contract, expanding the rib cage to assist with lung expansion. During exhalation, both muscles relax, causing the chest to contract and push air out of the lungs. If the phrenic nerve, which controls the diaphragm, is damaged, the diaphragm cannot contract, making it difficult to inhale properly. This can lead to respiratory problems and may require mechanical ventilation for breathing support.
Describe the role of the renal tubules in the process of urine formation. How do the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), loop of Henle, and distal convoluted tubule (DCT) contribute to reabsorption?
What is The renal tubules are crucial in urine formation, as they are responsible for reabsorbing essential substances and secreting waste. In the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), about 65-70% of the filtrate is reabsorbed, including water, glucose, amino acids, and various electrolytes, through both active and passive transport mechanisms. As the filtrate moves through the loop of Henle, it creates a concentration gradient; the descending reabsorbs water, while the ascending reabsorbs salts like sodium and chloride, which helps concentrate the urine. Finally, in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT), further reabsorption of sodium, calcium, and bicarbonate occurs, and potassium and hydrogen ions are secreted, helping to regulate the body’s electrolyte balance.
Describe how blood clots form
What is hemostasis. Blood vessel undergoes a vasospasm and constricts to reduce blood flow. Platelet plug formation occurs and platelets become sticky and stick to the damaged part of damaged vessels, then coagulation: Prothrombin gets converted as Factor X, which is activated in a coagulation cascade, converts it to thrombin. Thrombin then converts fibrinogen into fibrin which is insoluble. Fibrin forms long, sticky threads. The fibrin threads weave together and create a mesh like net, trapping blood cells and platelets, forming a clot. Factor XIII strengthens the fibrin mesh by crosslinking. This makes the clot stable and helps it stay in place until the blood vessel is healed.