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100

Structure of government under the Articles of Confederation

There was no national executive or judiciary. Delegates to Congress were appointed by the state legislatures, and each state had one vote. Congress had the authority to declare war, develop foreignpolicy, coin money, regulate Native American affairs in the territories, run the post office, borrow money, and appoint army and navy officers. Quite significantly, however, all powers not specifically delegated to Congress belonged to the states. “Each state retains it’s sovereignty,freedom,independence. Each state had 1 vote no matter size, population, or wealth. Important laws needed approval of 9 of the 13 states. Changes to articles need unanimous vote. Weakness no chief executive nor a judiciary + lacked power to tax either the states.

200

Federalist Papers

Beginning on October 27, 1787 the Federalist Papers were first published in the New York press under the signature of "Publius". These papers are generally considered to be one of the most important contributions to political thought made in America. The essays appeared in book form in 1788, with an introduction by Hamilton. Subsequently they were printed in many editions and translated to several languages. The pseudonym "Publius" was used by three man: Jay, Madison and Hamilton. Jay was responsible for only a few of the 85 articles. The papers were meant to be influential in the campaign for the adoption of the Constitution by New York State. But the authors not only discussed the issues of the constitution, but also many general problems of politics.

300

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

The Virginia Resolution, authored by Madison, said that by enacting the Alien and Sedition Acts, Congress was exercising “a power not delegated by the Constitution, but on the contrary, expressly and positively forbidden by one of the amendments thereto; a power, which more than any other, ought to produce universal alarm, because it is leveled against that right of freely examining public characters and measures, and of free communication among the people thereon, which has ever been justly deemed, the only effectual guardian of every other right.” Madison hoped that other states would register their opposition to the Alien and Sedition Acts as beyond the powers given to Congress.

The Kentucky Resolutions, authored by Jefferson, went further than Madison’s Virginia Resolution and asserted that states had the power to nullify unconstitutional federal laws. The Kentucky Resolution declared in part, “[T]he several states who formed that instrument [the Constitution], being sovereign and independent, have the unquestionable right to judge of its infraction; and that a nullification, by those [states], of all unauthorized acts….is the rightful remedy.”

400

Missouri Compromise

• The Missouri Compromise was an effort by Congress to defuse the sectional and political rivalries triggered by the request of Missouri late in 1819 for admission as a state in which slavery would be permitted. At the time, the United States contained twenty-two states, evenly divided between slave and free. Admission of Missouri as a slave state would upset that balance; it would also set a precedent for congressional acquiescence in the expansion of slavery. Earlier in 1819, when Missouri was being organized as a territory, Representative James Tallmadge of New York had proposed an amendment that would ultimately have ended slavery there; this effort was defeated, as was a similar effort by Representative John Taylor of New York regarding Arkansas Territory.

500

Trail of Tears

• At the beginning of the 1830s, nearly 125,000 Native Americans lived on millions of acres of land in Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina and Florida–land their ancestors had occupied and cultivated for generations. By the end of the decade, very few natives remained anywhere in the southeastern United States. Working on behalf of white settlers who wanted to grow cotton on the Indians’ land, the federal government forced them to leave their homelands and walk thousands of miles to a specially designated “Indian territory” across the Mississippi River. This difficult and sometimes deadly journey is known as the Trail of Tears.

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100

The Great Compromise

As the convention grappled with central problem of representation of large and small states, the Connecticut delegates suggested a chamber (the senate) have two members from each state, while seats in the lower chamber (the house of representatives) be appointed by population (determined every ten years by a national census). After bitter debate delegates from the populous states reluctantly accepted this “Great Compromise”.

200

Hamilton’s Financial Plan

As treasury secretary, Hamilton devised bold policies to enhance national authority and to assist financiers and merchants. He outlined his plans in three pathbreaking reports to congress: on public credit (January 1790), on a national bank (December 1790), and on manufactures (December 1791). These reports outlined a coherent program of national mercantilism- government – assisted economic development.

1-Hamilton asked congress to redeem out face value the 55 million in confederation securities held by foreign and domestic investigators. Reason- As an underdeveloped nation, the us needed good credit to secure loans from Dutch + British financers. He would also create a permeant national debt. He also wanted congress to recompense those who originally owned confederation securities. The house rejected this.

2-He then proposed that the national government further enhance public credit by assuming the war debts of the states. Costing 22 million.

3-He also agreed that the national capital would be built along the Potomac River, so to watch operations.

National Bank

1-Thomas Jefferson joined James Maddison to oppose Hamilton’s financial initiatives-They said that the national bank is unconstitutional

2-Hamilton now sought revenue to pay the annual interest on the National debt. He increased taxes and tariff. His plan worked.   

300

Revolution of 1800

• Some observers have regarded Jefferson's election in 1800 as revolutionary. This may be true in a restrained sense of the word, since the change from Federalist leadership to Republican was entirely legal and bloodless. Nevertheless, the changes were profound. The Federalists lost control of both the presidency and the Congress. Jefferson won a narrow 73-to-65 victory over Adams in the electoral college. Republican electors gave 73 votes to Aarron Burr Jefferson’s vice pres. Running mate. In the tie the house blocked Jefferson. Promoting rumors that Virginia would raise a military force to put him in office.

400

Patronage

• the financial support or business provided to a store, hotel, or the like, by customers, clients, or paying guests.

patrons collectively; clientele.The control of or power to make appointments to government jobs or the power to grant other political favors.

offices, jobs, or other favors so controlled.

the distribution of jobs and favors on a political basis, as to those who have supported one's party or political campaign.

a condescending manner or attitude in granting favors, in dealing with people, etc.; condescension: Between 1817 + 1821 in New York, Van Buren turned his “Bucktail” supporters (who wore a deer’s tail on their hats) into the first statewide political machine. He bought newspaper “the Albany Argus” and used it to promote his policies. Patronage- Bucktails won control of these New York Legislature in 1821, they acquired the power to appoint some 6 thousand of their friends to positions in New York’s sheriffs, deed commissions, and coroners.

500

Expansion of Slavery

• By the beginning of the 19th century, slavery in the U.S. was firmly established with a series of statutes and penal codes enacted in various states to regulate the activity of slaves and all conduct involving slaves and free blacks. With the Louisiana Purchase, the question of slavery became both geographical and political, and ushered in a period of national debate between pro- and anti-slavery states to gain political and economic advantage. But by 1820, Congress was embroiled in the debate over how to divide the newly acquired territories into slave and free states. The advance of 900 miles more than doubled the geographical area cultivated by slave labor and increased the number of slave states from 8 in 1800 to 15 by 1850: they brought the African slaves in to help the planters.

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100

New Jersey Plan

The New Jersey Plan was one option as to how the United States would be governed. The Plan called for each state to have one vote in Congress instead of the number of votes being based on population. This was to protect the equality of the states regardless of population size.

The New Jersey Plan was introduced to the Constitutional Convention by William Paterson, a New Jersey delegate, on June 15, 1787. The Constitutional Convention was convened to amend the Articles of Confederation, but it became apparent that a new government would need to be created. The Articles of Confederation was the first form of government, but was considered ineffective because Americans did not want to have another tyrant like Great Britain. The states wanted the power. One of the major debates that emerged during the Convention is how many votes each state would have in Congress. They chose this plan over the Virginia plan to debate over.

200

Jay’s Treaty

On November 19, 1794 representatives of the United States and Great Britain signed Jay’s Treaty, which sought to settle outstanding issues between the two countries that had been left unresolved since American independence. The treaty proved unpopular with the American public but did accomplish the goal of maintaining peace between the two nations and preserving U.S. neutrality. The treaty required the U.S. government to make “full and complete compensation” to British merchants for pre-revolutionary war debts owed to American citizens. In return Americans can submit claims for illegal seizures + remove British their troops+ Indian agents from the northwest territory

300

Barbary Pirates

• Barbary pirate, any of the Muslim pirates operating from the coast of North Africa, at their most powerful during the 17th century but still active until the 19th century. Captains, who formed a class in Algiers and Tunis, commanded cruisers outfitted by wealthy backers, who then received 10 percent of the value of the prizes. The pirates used galleys until the 17th century, when Simon Danser, a Flemish renegade, taught them the advantage of using sailing ships.

400

Clay’s American System

• From the nation's earliest days, Congress has struggled with the fundamental issue of the national government's proper role in fostering economic development. Henry Clay's "American System," devised in the burst of nationalism that followed the War of 1812, remains one of the most historically significant examples of a government-sponsored program to harmonize and balance the nation's agriculture, commerce, and industry. This "System" consisted of three mutually reinforcing parts: a tariff to protect and promote American industry; a national bank to foster commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and other "internal improvements" to develop profitable markets for agriculture. Funds for these subsidies would be obtained from tariffs and sales of public lands. Clay argued that a vigorously maintained system of sectional economic interdependence would eliminate the chance of renewed subservience to the free-trade, laissez-faire "British System." In the years from 1816 to 1828, Congress enacted programs supporting each of the American System's major elements. After the 1829 inauguration of President Andrew Jackson's administration, with its emphasis on a limited role for the federal government and sectional autonomy, the American System became the focus of anti-Jackson opposition that coalesced into the new Whig party under the leadership of Henry Clay.

500

Wilmot Proviso

The Wilmot Proviso was a proposal to prohibit slavery in the territory acquired by the United States at the conclusion of the Mexican War.

In 1846, David Wilmot a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from Pennsylvania, proposed the Wilmot Proviso. He attached the proviso to an appropriations bill to pay Mexico for land that the United States had seized as a result of the Mexican War. The Wilmot Proviso would have prevented slavery's expansion into any of this new territory. The House of Representatives approved the appropriations bill and the proviso on August 8, 1846, but the Senate adjourned before it could debate the bill. The House adopted the bill and the proviso in its next session. On February 1, 1847, the Senate approved the bill but rejected the proviso. As a result, the proviso never went into effect.

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100

Virginia Plan

• On May 29, 1787, Virginia delegate Edmund Randolph proposed what became known as "The Virginia Plan." Written primarily by fellow Virginian James Madison, the plan traced the broad outlines of what would become the U.S. Constitution: a national government consisting of three branches with checks and balances to prevent the abuse of power. In its amended form, this page of Madison's plan shows his ideas for a legislature. It describes 2 houses: one with members elected by the people for 3-year terms and the other composed of older leaders elected by the state legislatures for 7-year terms. Both would use population as a basis for dividing seats among the states. This plan differed in 3 crucial respects.
• 1-Plan rejected state sovereignty in favor of “supremacy of national authority.
• 2-National government established by the people not the states.
• 3-A 3 tier election system-people elect lower/lower would select upper + both would appoint executive + judiciary.

200

Election of 1796

• The United States presidential election of 1796 was the first contested American presidential election and the only one to elect a President and Vice President from opposing tickets.
  
  With incumbent President George Washington having refused a third term in office, incumbent Vice President John Adams of Massachusetts was a candidate for the presidency on the Federalist Party ticket with former Governor Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina as the next most popular Federalist. Their opponents were former Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson of Virginia along with Senator Aaron Burr of New York on the Democratic-Republican ticket. At this point, each man from any party ran alone, as the formal position of "running mate" had not yet been established.

300

Marbury v. Madison

• Marbury v. Madison, arguably the most important case in Supreme Court history, was the first U.S. Supreme Court case to apply the principle of "judicial review" -- the power of federal courts to void acts of Congress in conflict with the Constitution. Written in 1803 by Chief Justice John Marshall, the decision played a key role in making the Supreme Court a separate branch of government on par with Congress and the executive.

400

12th Amendment

The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;—The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;—The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; The house of Representatives would choose the president from among the 3 highest vote-getters

500

Slavery Compromises at the Convention

With little power to execute its laws or collect taxes, the new government proved ineffective. In May 1787, 55 delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia. (Rhode Island refused to send a delegation.) Their goal was to revise the Articles of Confederation. Meeting in secret sessions, they quickly changed their goal. They would write a new Constitution. The outline of the new government was soon agreed to. It would have three branches — executive, judiciary, and a two-house legislature.

• How many members each state would have in the House of Representatives.
  (2) How many electoral votes each state would have in presidential elections.
  (3) The amount each state would pay in direct taxes to the federal government.

The compromise of 1850 preserved national unity by accepting once again the stipulation of advanced by the south since 1787: no union without slavery. A majority of delegates remain committed to the union, but only on the condition that congress protect slavery where it exists and grant statehood to any territory that ratified a proslavery constitution.

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100

Federalist No. 10

• An essay written by James Madison as the tenth of The Federalist Papers: a series of essays initiated by Alexander Hamilton arguing for the ratification of the United States Constitution. Madison challenged the view that republican governments only worked in small polities, arguing that a large state would better protect republican liberty. A free society should welcome all factions but keep any one of them from becoming dominant- something best achieved in a large republic.

200

Alien and Sedition Acts

No protesting the government? No immigrants allowed in? No freedom of the press. Lawmakers jailed? Is this the story of the Soviet Union during the Cold War?

No. It describes the United States in 1798 after the passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.

The strong steps that Adams took in response to the French foreign threat also included severe repression of domestic protest. A series of laws known collectively as the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTSwere passed by the Federalist Congress in 1798 and signed into law by President Adams. These laws included new powers to DEPORT foreigners as well as making it harder for new IMMIGRANTSto vote. Previously a new immigrant would have to reside in the United States for five years before becoming eligible to vote, but a new law raised this to 14 years. The sedition act- prohibited the publication of insults or malicious attacks on the president or members of congress. Prosecutors arrested more than 20 republican newspaper editors + politicians.

300

Lewis and Clark Expedition

• The Lewis and Clark Expedition began in 1804, when President Thomas Jefferson tasked Meriwether Lewis with exploring lands west of the Mississippi River that comprised the Louisiana Purchase. Lewis chose William Clark as his co-leader for the mission. The excursion lasted over two years: Along the way they confronted harsh weather, unforgiving terrain, treacherous waters, injuries, starvation, disease and both friendly and hostile Native Americans. Nevertheless, the approximately 8,000-mile journey was deemed a huge success and provided new geographic, ecological and social information about previously uncharted areas of North America. Expedition then included Toussaint Charbonneau afrreveh Canadian fur trader and his wife Sacagawea. They provided Jefferson with the first map of immense wilderness and natural recourses and inhabitants.

400

Nullification Controversy

Nullification crisis, in U.S. history, confrontation between the state of South Carolina and the federal government in 1832–33 over the former’s attempt to declare null and void within the state the federal Tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The resolution of the nullification crisis in favor of the federal government helped to undermine the nullification doctrine, the constitutional theory that upheld the right of states to nullify federal acts within their boundaries. Each state or geographical region had distinct interests, localists argued, protective tariffs and other national legislation that operated unequally on various states lacked fairness and legitimacy-in fact unconstitutional.

500

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