Neolithic Transition
Plant changes during the transition from the Last Glacial Maximum to the Neolithic
Larger seeds from fewer plant species were cultivated, and ones with sturdier rachises were preferentially selected.
What was the earliest writing used for?
trade and economic records.
How were Harappan cities organized?
Established city street grid surrounding a centralized civic ceremonial center. Central public architecture included great baths, community warehouses, public trash and sewage services, and neighborhoods.
Archaeological examples of social differentiation (inequality).
The development of metallurgy quickly impacted social status (example of Varna, only older men burried with high status metal items). At Pietrele Romania, larger elite homes were built on top of a hill that was walled off from homes surrounding the hill.
Sargon of Akkad's rise
Rose to power as a warrior who was able to conquer most of Mesopotamia. His strategy was to remove a conquered city state's defenses and increase trade among them. This led to population growth in areas between city states, and increasing development.
Gobelki Tepe
Monumental architecture indicating a large labor population and force able to organize labor. Nearby communities were likely connected through a broader social network to construct this style of architecture.
When did a centralized form of government (state society) form in Mesopotamia?
The Ubaid period. Mesopotamian economy moved past the domestic level and was organized by the state. Temples often controlled and recorded economic trade.
Examples of craft specialization?
Carnelian bead workshop in Ur indicates craftspeople were migrating from Harappan socieities to Mesopotamia.
Examples of centralized governance
Centralized maintenence of public services (irrigation, monumental constructions, organized warfare, judiciary system).
What are factors that cause collapse and does collapse occur suddenly?
Collapse can be driven by economic (decrease in access to resources, lack of economic stability), political (warfare), or social (inequality, bad responses to environmental disasters) factors. Generally, these factors stress a society for generations and make communities unwilling to put up with society.
Where was Oetzi found and how have interpretations changed?
Archaeologists first though Oetzi died from hypothermia in the Bronze age while crossing the Alps and traveling between settlements. Later studies indicate he was killed by an arrow and bludgeoned. Analysis of his axe identified it as copper and pushed the dating back along with radiocarbon dating. Further studies indicate he traveled frequently and had health problems including Lyme disease and was lactose intollerant.
How does the Royal Cemetary of Ur inform Mesopotamian social life?
Dramatic examples of inequality and social differentiation. Elite rulers were buried with extensive prestige goods including animal sacrifices and servants who were forcibly sacrificed to serve rulers in the afterlife.
Examples of hierarchy
Presence of terracota versus carnelian beads. Differences in house size between wealthier and commoner houses. Privatization of wells and baths.
Evidence of economic specialization
Examples: Large kilns, evidence of large scale waste/imperfections, and prestige goods requiring high degrees of training (carnelian beads).
Harappan Society's decline
After ~2100 BCE cities are no longer built in standardized ways, defensive fortifications become more common and complex indicating warfare, city services are no longer maintained, evidence of middle men taking larger cuts of trade between Harappa and Mesopotamia.
Osteological evidence of malnutrition in early farmers?
Bone pitting in eye sockets caused by malnutrition. Enamel hypoplasia in teeth from malnutrition. Rising infant mortaility rate and decreasing stature.
Evidence of trade in Mesopotamia
Stamp seals were used to identify senders. Later replaced by cylindar seals that identify sender's name.
Tokens used to record goods sent. Replaced by cuneiform.
Bullae, hollow ceramic enclosings that summarize the goods traded. Replaced by cuneiform.
How do we see Elites in Harappan society?
We see differences in wealth (ex. house sizes) but not the identification of individuals as "special" or ruler like status.
Methods used to defend cities
City walls, baffle gates to confuse and slow down attackers, wall and ditch complexes, and balustrades to trap invaders in crossfire.
The Fall of the Akkadian Empire
Droughts began to stress the empire and surrounding region (Evidence from sites like Tell Leilan). Northern raiders and migrants seeking refuge from drought overwhelmed Sargon's empire which was unable to defend and maintain its control.
Metallurgy in Southeastern Europe
Evidence of increasing control over fire to reach higher temperatures in ceramic production first. Decorative ceramic paste was mineral based, and may be the first accidental use of copper and other metals. Metallurgy likely developed independently across multiple areas, and was well developed by the end of the Neolithic.
Who was Gilgamesh?
A mythical hero recorded in a cuneiform epic. He is credited with protecting Uruk by building immense city walls.
Trade relationship between Harappa and Mesopotamia
Harappa was primarily exporting raw materials like (carnelian beads, timber, metal, and jewels). Mesopotamia was mostly inmporting goods from Harappa, as evidenced by cylinder seals from Harapa primarily found in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia had writing which was used extensively for economic purposes. Harappa had writing but the script is undeciphered, and only short texts have been discovered. The Baltics did not have writing.
What was Joseph Tainter's theory on collapse?
Societies can only become so complex before they collapse. There comes a point where the benefits provided by a state are not worth the effort individuals put in if they are receiving less.