Chapter 13
This devastating pandemic killed about one-third of Europe’s population in the 14th century.
What is the Black Death?
This German monk sparked the Protestant Reformation in 1517 by challenging Church practices like the sale of indulgences.
Who is Martin Luther?
This 17th-century English document, passed by Parliament in 1628, limited the king’s ability to tax without consent.
What is the Petition of Right?
These gatherings, often hosted by women like Madame Geoffrin in Paris, encouraged discussion of philosophy, literature, and politics among intellectuals.
What are salons?
This French general rose to power during the Revolution, became First Consul, and later crowned himself Emperor of the French.
Who is Napoleon Bonaparte?
This conflict within the Catholic Church (1378–1417) involved multiple popes claiming authority at the same time.
What is the Great Schism?
This Act of 1534 declared the English monarch the supreme head of the Church of England.
What is the Act of Supremacy?
This French minister under Louis XIII and XIV strengthened royal power by centralizing authority, suppressing nobles, and using intendants to enforce policies.
Who is Cardinal Richelieu?
This French writer and philosopher criticized intolerance and superstition, advocating for freedom of speech and religion.
Who is Voltaire?
This international meeting in 1814–1815 aimed to restore stability to Europe after Napoleon’s defeat and created a framework known as the Concert of Europe.
What is the Congress of Vienna?
This long conflict between England and France helped shape national identity in both countries.
What is the Hundred Years’ War?
This is the theory that the Earth and other planets revolve around the Sun, first proposed systematically by Copernicus.
What is heliocentrism?
This cultural and economic shift in Europe included increased consumer goods, new patterns of wealth, and changing social structures, influenced by trade, agriculture, and urbanization.
What is the consumer revolution?
This German philosopher’s work Critique of Pure Reason sought to reconcile rationalism and empiricism, profoundly shaping modern philosophy.
Who is Immanuel Kant?
This 1815 battle marked the final defeat of Napoleon against British and Prussian forces.
What is the Battle of Waterloo?
This event in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire when the Ottomans captured its capital.
What is the Fall of Constantinople?
This period of unusually cold climate in Europe from roughly the 14th to 19th centuries caused shorter growing seasons, crop failures, and contributed to social unrest like famine and peasant revolts.
What is the Little Ice Age / global cooling?
This Russian tsar reorganized the army, modernized the government, and introduced Western customs to his nobility and society.
Who is Peter the Great?
This oath, taken by members of the Third Estate in 1789, vowed not to disband until France had a constitution.
What is the Tennis Court Oath?
This Austrian foreign minister dominated the Congress of Vienna, promoting conservatism, legitimacy, and a balance of power to maintain European stability.
Who is Klemens von Metternich?
This reform movement, inspired by the teachings of John Wycliffe, called for a vernacular Bible and criticized Church corruption, and later influenced Jan Hus and religious dissent in Bohemia.
What are the Lollards?
This radical German preacher and leader in the Peasants’ War of 1525 called for social and economic reforms alongside religious change, and was eventually executed for his role in the uprising.
Who is Thomas Müntzer?
This 18th-century German religious revival emphasized personal devotion, Bible study, and moral living within Protestantism.
What is Pietism?
This radical revolutionary led the Committee of Public Safety, justified the Reign of Terror, and promoted the Republic of Virtue.
Who is Maximilien Robespierre?
This secret Italian nationalist organization opposed Napoleonic rule and later inspired revolutionary movements during the 19th century.
What are the Carbonari?