Biological Bases of Behavior
A psychologist is examining why identical twins raised apart still show similarities in personality. The influence of genetic traits is known as __________, while external experiences like family and education are referred to as __________. Twin studies and _________ studies can both be used as evidence for each. (3 parts)
heredity (nature); environmental factors (nurture);adoption
Perception can rely on __________ processing, which uses sensory input, or __________ processing, which uses prior knowledge and expectations. Internal filters such as __________ and perceptual sets shape how information is interpreted, while Gestalt principles like __________ explain how we organize visual stimuli. Failures of attention can lead to errors such as __________ blindness. (5 parts)
bottom-up; top-down; schemas; proximity; change
Before birth, development can be affected by harmful influences called __________, as well as genetic and environmental factors. In infancy, basic survival responses such as the __________ reflex indicate normal development, while the __________ experiment demonstrates early depth perception. During adolescence, major physical changes occur during __________, leading to reproductive maturity. In adulthood, physical abilities such as reaction time and sensory acuity generally __________ over time. (5 parts)
teratogens; rooting; visual cliff; puberty; decline
Attribution theory explains how people interpret behavior using __________ attributions, which focus on internal traits, and __________ attributions, which focus on external circumstances. People often display bias, such as the __________ attribution error, where they overemphasize internal factors in others’ behavior. Beliefs about control can reflect an __________ locus of control, where individuals believe outcomes are due to their own actions. Repeated exposure to a stimulus can increase liking through the __________ exposure effect. (5 parts)
dispositional; situational; fundamental; internal; mere
Stress can be experienced as __________, which is positive and motivating, or __________, which is harmful and overwhelming. The body’s response to stress is described by the __________ adaptation syndrome, beginning with the __________ reaction. Over time, prolonged stress can weaken the immune system and increase susceptibility to __________. People cope with stress through strategies such as problem-focused coping, which aims to solve the stressor, or emotion-focused coping, which manages __________ reactions. (6 parts)
eustress; distress; general; alarm; illness; emotional
The __________ nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and serves as the body’s control center. The __________ nervous system transmits signals between this system and the rest of the body. Within it, the __________ nervous system controls voluntary actions, while the __________ nervous system regulates involuntary processes. The latter includes the __________ and __________ divisions, which have opposing effects on the body. (6 parts)
central; peripheral; somatic; autonomic; sympathetic; parasympathetic
Problem-solving can rely on __________, which methodically test all possible solutions, or __________, which use mental shortcuts but can lead to errors. For example, judging likelihood based on vivid examples reflects the __________ heuristic. When encountering new information, people may incorporate it without changing their thinking through __________ or adjust their thinking through __________. Decision-making can also be influenced by prior success, known as __________. (6 parts)
algorithms; heuristics; availability; assimilation; accommodation; mental set
According to Jean Piaget, children build knowledge using __________ and __________ to adapt their schemas. In the __________ stage, infants develop object permanence. In the __________ stage, children struggle with conservation and may display egocentrism. In the __________ stage, individuals gain the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. (5 parts)
assimilation; accommodation; sensorimotor; preoperational; formal operational
A __________ is a generalized belief about a group that can contribute to prejudice and discrimination. __________ attitudes are unconscious beliefs that individuals may not be aware of but still influence behavior. These attitudes can lead to biases such as __________ bias, where people favor their own group. Even when evidence contradicts beliefs, __________ perseverance may cause them to persist, and the discomfort from conflicting attitudes and behaviors is known as __________. (5 parts)
stereotype; implicit; in-group; belief; cognitive dissonance
Positive psychology focuses on factors that promote __________, resilience, and positive emotions. Practices such as expressing __________ can increase subjective well-being. Individuals who use their __________ strengths are more likely to experience happiness. In some cases, individuals may experience __________ growth following trauma or stress. (4 parts)
well-being; gratitude; signature; posttraumatic
In a reflex arc, __________ neurons carry incoming signals to the spinal cord, where __________ process the information and pass it to __________ neurons, which trigger a response. Neural firing occurs when the neuron reaches a __________, following the __________ principle. Neurotransmitters can have either __________ or inhibitory effects on the next neuron.
sensory; interneurons; motor; threshold; all-or-none; excitatory
Memory can be divided into __________ memory, which includes facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled, and __________ memory, which includes skills and procedures. Within explicit memory, __________ memory refers to personal experiences, while __________ memory refers to general knowledge. (4 parts)
explicit; implicit; episodic; semantic
According to Vygotsky, children learn through social interaction with more knowledgeable others using __________, ideally within the __________. As people age, __________ intelligence tends to remain stable, while __________ intelligence declines. Severe cognitive decline in adulthood may be associated with disorders such as __________.
(5 parts)
scaffolding; zone; crystallized; fluid; dementia
Behavior in social situations is shaped by __________, which define expected roles and behaviors. Social influence can be __________, based on a desire to fit in, or informational, based on a desire to be correct. Persuasion can occur through the __________ route, which relies on logic and evidence, or the peripheral route. In groups, individuals may experience __________, where responsibility is spread across members, and may be less likely to help due to the __________ effect. (5 parts)
ocial norms; normative; central; diffusion of responsibility; bystander
Psychological disorders are identified based on factors such as __________ from social norms, level of distress, and dysfunction. Clinicians use tools like the __________ to classify disorders. Different perspectives explain causes, such as the __________ perspective, which focuses on maladaptive thinking patterns, and the biological perspective, which focuses on physiological factors. Many psychologists use an __________ approach, combining multiple perspectives, and may apply the __________-stress model, which suggests disorders result from vulnerability and life stress. (5 parts)
deviation; DSM; cognitive; eclectic; diathesis
The __________ controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate, while the __________ helps regulate balance and coordination. The __________ processes sensory information and is divided into two hemispheres connected by the __________. The __________ lobe is responsible for visual processing, while the __________ lobe is associated with executive functioning and decision-making. (6 parts)
brain stem; cerebellum; cerebral cortex; corpus callosum; occipital; frontal
Encoding can be improved through strategies such as __________, which groups information into meaningful units, and __________ devices like the method of loci. Studying over time using __________ practice is more effective than massed practice due to the __________ effect. Additionally, the __________ effect explains why information at the beginning and end of a list is better remembered. (5 parts)
chunking; mnemonic; distributed; spacing; serial position
Language is a system of symbols built from basic sounds called __________ and meaningful units called __________. The rules for combining these symbols are governed by __________, which allows language to be generative. During development, infants first produce sounds in the __________ stage, and later begin combining words in the __________ stage. (5 parts)
phonemes; morphemes; grammar; babbling; telegraphic
According to psychodynamic theory, personality is driven by __________ processes. To protect the self, the ego uses __________ mechanisms such as repression or denial. This perspective often assesses personality using __________ tests to uncover hidden thoughts. In contrast, the humanistic perspective emphasizes __________ regard and the drive toward self-actualization. (4 parts)
unconscious; defense; projective; unconditional
Neurodevelopmental disorders such as __________ and autism spectrum disorder are identified by behaviors that are not appropriate for a person’s developmental level. Schizophrenia is characterized by positive symptoms such as __________ and hallucinations, as well as negative symptoms like reduced emotional expression. Possible causes of schizophrenia include biological factors such as neurotransmitter imbalances, especially involving __________. Depressive disorders are characterized by persistent __________ mood and may be caused by a combination of biological, cognitive, and social factors. (4 parts)
ADHD; delusions; dopamine; depressed
The sleep/wake cycle follows a __________ rhythm that lasts about 24 hours. Sleep is divided into __________ sleep, which includes Stages 1–3, and __________ sleep, where dreaming typically occurs. REM sleep is considered __________ because brain activity resembles wakefulness while the body remains relaxed. One function of sleep is __________ consolidation, and disruptions such as jet lag can interfere with this cycle and affect behavior. (5 parts)
circadian; NREM; REM; paradoxical; memory
Memory storage occurs across systems including __________ memory, which briefly holds sensory input, __________ memory, which temporarily holds limited information, and __________ memory, which stores information more permanently. Storage can be strengthened through __________ rehearsal, which focuses on meaning rather than repetition. Damage to memory systems can result in disorders such as __________ amnesia, where new memories cannot be formed. (5 parts)
sensory; short-term; long-term; elaborative; anterograde
According to ecological systems theory, the __________ includes immediate environments like family, while the __________ reflects broader cultural influences. Early relationships are shaped by __________ attachment, where caregivers provide consistent support, while insecure attachment can take forms such as avoidant or anxious. During adolescence, individuals may experience egocentrism through the __________ audience. Across the lifespan, individuals must resolve conflicts in Erikson's theory of __________ development. (5 parts)
microsystem; macrosystem; secure; imaginary; psychosocial
According to __________ theory, behavior is motivated by the need to maintain homeostasis, while __________ theory suggests people seek an optimal level of arousal. Motivation can be __________ when driven by internal satisfaction or extrinsic when driven by rewards. Conflicts such as __________ occur when a single goal has both positive and negative aspects. Biological drives like hunger are regulated by hormones such as __________. (5 parts)
drive-reduction; arousal; intrinsic; approach-avoidance; ghrelin
Bipolar disorders are characterized by alternating periods of __________ and depression. Anxiety disorders involve excessive __________ or fear, such as in specific phobias or generalized anxiety disorder. Obsessive-compulsive disorder includes intrusive __________ and repetitive compulsions. Dissociative disorders involve disruptions in __________ or identity, often due to trauma. Across many of these disorders, possible causes include __________ and environmental factors. (5 parts)
mania; anxiety; obsessions; memory; biological
Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli that reach a certain __________ and converting them into neural signals through __________. The minimum level of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time is called the __________. In the visual system, light is focused onto the __________, where specialized cells called __________ detect color and detail. (5 parts)
threshold; transduction; absolute threshold; retina; cones
Memory retrieval can occur through __________, which involves remembering without cues, or __________, which relies on identifying previously learned information. Retrieval is improved when conditions match encoding, such as in __________ memory or __________ memory. Practicing retrieval through strategies like the __________ effect can further strengthen recall. (5 parts)
recall; recognition; context-dependent; state-dependent; testing
In classical conditioning, a(n) __________ naturally produces a(n) __________, which can become a(n) __________ when paired with a new stimulus. Learning this association is called __________. If the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus, __________ may occur, though the response can later return through spontaneous recovery. (5 parts)
unconditioned stimulus; unconditioned response; conditioned response; acquisition; extinction
Emotion involves both __________ arousal and __________ interpretation, which may occur in sequence or simultaneously depending on the theory. Some theories emphasize that a __________ label is necessary to experience emotion. Positive emotions can broaden thinking according to the __________ theory, while emotional expression is shaped by cultural __________ rules. (5 parts)
physiological; cognitive; cognitive; broaden-and-build; display
Research shows that __________ is generally effective in treating psychological disorders. Modern treatment often combines therapy with __________ medication following trends of deinstitutionalization. Cognitive therapies focus on changing __________ thinking patterns, while __________-behavioral therapies combine cognitive and learning principles. Behavior therapies use techniques such as __________ to reduce anxiety responses. (5 parts)
psychotherapy; psychotropic; maladaptive; cognitive; exposure
Sound is created by vibrations that vary in __________ (perceived as pitch) and __________ (perceived as loudness). The location of sound is determined through __________. Smell is unique because it does not first pass through the __________, and taste, or __________, works closely with smell to create flavor. The sense of balance is controlled by the __________ system. (6 parts)
wavelength; amplitude; sound localization; thalamus; gustation; vestibular
Psychologists debate whether intelligence is a single general ability called __________ or a set of multiple abilities. Early intelligence tests calculated __________ by dividing mental age by chronological age. For tests to be useful, they must be __________, meaning they produce consistent results, and __________, meaning they measure what they are intended to measure. Over time, average scores have increased due to the __________ effect. (5 parts)
g; intelligence quotient; reliable; valid; Flynn
In operant conditioning, behavior is shaped by __________ and punishment, as described by the Law of Effect. Reinforcement can be __________, which adds a stimulus, or negative, which removes one to increase behavior. Behavior can be gradually developed through __________, reinforcing successive approximations. The pattern of responding is influenced by the __________ of reinforcement, with __________ schedules providing reinforcement after a set number of responses. (5 parts)
reinforcement; positive; shaping; schedule; fixed-ratio
According to the social-cognitive perspective, personality is shaped by __________ determinism, the interaction of behavior, environment, and personal factors. This includes one’s __________ concept, which is influenced by self-efficacy and self-esteem. In contrast, trait theories define personality as enduring __________ that lead to consistent behavior. The __________ model includes traits such as openness and conscientiousness, which are often measured using personality inventories and __________ analysis. (5 parts)
reciprocal; self; traits; Big Five; factor
__________ therapy differs from individual therapy by involving multiple clients who can provide support and feedback to one another. __________ can be used to treat pain and anxiety but is not effective for accurately retrieving memories. Biological treatments often involve __________ medications that affect neurotransmitters. Some of these medications can produce side effects such as __________ dyskinesia. (4 parts)
group; hypnosis; psychotropic; tardive