Jefferson's Presidency
Often called the “Revolution of 1800,” resulted in a dramatic shift in political power when Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, but only after an electoral tie sent the decision to the House of Representatives. The political crisis exposed weaknesses in the original electoral system and led directly to the ratification of the 12th Amendment.
The Election of 1800
This leader attempted to unite multiple Native American nations into a powerful confederation capable of resisting U.S. expansion into the West. His diplomatic and military efforts, supported in part by the British, contributed to rising tensions before the War of 1812 and made him one of the most influential Native leaders of the era.
Tecumseh
This decisive 1813 naval victory, achieved under the command of Oliver Hazard Perry, gave the U.S. control of a strategic body of water bordering British Canada. It not only secured the Northwest Territory but also allowed American forces to reclaim Detroit and shift momentum during the War of 1812.
The Battle of the Great Lakes / Battle of Lake Erie
Originally championed by Alexander Hamilton, this institution became a recurring political controversy as debates over its constitutionality and economic role resurfaced when its charter expired in 1811. Its eventual re-charter after the War of 1812 revealed how national crises could shift public opinion in favor of stronger federal economic powers.
The National Bank / Bank of the United States (B.U.S)
Beginning after the War of 1812 - marked by reduced political conflict following the collapse of the Federalist Party and the dominance of the Democratic-Republicans. Despite its positives, growing tensions over economic policy, sectionalism, and the question of slavery’s expansion were masked.
This event stemmed from a dispute over undelivered judicial commissions in the final hours of the Adams presidency. Chief Justice John Marshall used the ruling to assert that the Supreme Court had the authority to invalidate acts of Congress that violated the Constitution—fundamentally strengthening the judiciary.
Marbury v. Madison
This group of young, expansionist congressmen from the South and West argued that British interference with American shipping and support for Native resistance threatened national honor. Their advocacy helped persuade President Madison and Congress to declare war in 1812.
The War Hawks
When British forces marched into this area and destroyed key government buildings, it dealt a symbolic blow to national pride. However, the attack ultimately strengthened American resolve and contributed to the surge of postwar nationalism that characterized the years that followed.
The Burning of Washington 1814
This ambitious economic plan sought to strengthen the national economy through a protective tariff, a national bank, and federally funded internal improvements like roads and canals. It reflected the vision of an integrated national market and played a central role in debates over federal versus state power during the early 19th century.
Henry Clay's American System
This 1820 agreement, engineered by Henry Clay, attempted to maintain the balance between free and slave states by admitting one slave state and one free state. Its provision banning slavery north of the 36°30’ line temporarily eased sectional tensions but foreshadowed deeper conflicts ahead.
The Missouri Compromise
This constitutional principle, shaped by John Marshall’s Supreme Court, gave federal courts the power to strike down legislation or executive actions deemed unconstitutional. It profoundly expanded the role of the judiciary by placing it on equal footing with the legislative and executive branches, even though the principle is not explicitly stated in the Constitution.
Judicial Review
Uprooted roughly 16k Cherokee from their ancestral lands despite a court ruling that had recognized their sovereignty. The deadly westward trek caused the deaths of thousands from exposure, disease, and starvation, and became a powerful symbol of the federal government’s willingness to ignore both legal precedent and humanitarian concerns in the pursuit of expansion.
The Trail of Tears
Signed in December 1814, this resulted in the official end of the War of 1812 without addressing the maritime issues that initially sparked the conflict, such as impressment and trade restrictions. Still, the restoration of pre-war boundaries and the cessation of hostilities generated a sense of victory and unity among Americans.
The Treaty of Ghent
Passed in 1809 as a replacement for a disastrous policy, this law reopened American trade with all nations except Britain and France in an attempt to pressure the two powers into respecting U.S. neutrality. Although less economically damaging than the embargo, it proved largely ineffective because Britain and France remained the United States’ most important trading partners.
The Non-Intercourse Act
This 1823 declaration warned European nations against establishing new colonies or interfering in the Western Hemisphere, asserting that such actions would be viewed as hostile. While initially weak in enforcement, it signaled a growing sense of American influence and hemispheric responsibility.
The Monroe Doctrine
This 1803 transaction doubled the nation's size for $15 million and secured control of the Mississippi River and New Orleans. Though it violated Jefferson’s strict-constructionist views, he justified the acquisition as a treaty power—highlighting the flexibility presidents often exercise in foreign policy.
The Louisiana Purchase
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that state laws attempting to regulate the Cherokee Nation were unconstitutional, asserting that Native nations held distinct political communities with sovereign authority over their own territory. Although the ruling should have protected the Cherokee from state encroachment, President Jackson and state officials refused to enforce it.
Worcester v. Georgia
This 1811 conflict between U.S. forces led by Governor William Henry Harrison and Native warriors associated with Tecumseh’s confederacy occurred near present-day Indiana and dealt a major blow to Native attempts to resist American expansion. The battle heightened American suspicions about British support for Native resistance and became one of the key events increasing tensions that helped push the United States toward the War of 1812.
The Battle of Tippecanoe
Signed in 1819 - ceded Florida to the U.S. and defined the western boundary of the Louisiana Purchase, effectively resolving long-standing territorial disputes. It reflected U.S. expansionist ambitions and was influenced by Andrew Jackson’s military incursions into Spanish Florida. T
The Adams-Onís Treaty
This term describes the growing loyalty to one’s own region of the country rather than to the nation as a whole. Economic differences, such as the industrializing North versus the agrarian, slave-based South, along with debates over tariffs and westward expansion, fueled this divide.
Sectionalism
Passed in 1807, this sweeping ban on all American exports aimed to pressure Britain and France into respecting U.S. neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars. Instead, it devastated American commerce, strengthened smuggling, and contributed to domestic political backlash—ultimately proving an economic failure and tarnishing Jefferson’s presidency.
The Embargo Act of 1807
This tribal nation sought an injunction to halt state attempts to strip them of their lands and political rights, arguing they were a sovereign nation protected by federal treaties. Chief Justice John Marshall, however, ruled that the tribe was not a “foreign nation” but a “domestic dependent nation,” meaning the Court lacked jurisdiction to hear their claim.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
This successful defense during a British bombardment became one of the most celebrated moments of the War of 1812. Despite relentless shelling, American forces held their position and prevented the British from capturing a key port city - a crucial morale boost after the burning of Washington.
The Bombardment of Fort McHenry
This agreement between the United States and Great Britain established the 49th parallel as the official border between the U.S. and British Canada. It also allowed for joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years and resolved lingering disputes following the War of 1812.
The Convention of 1818
This 19th-century belief held that the United States was destined—by God and history—to expand its territory across the North American continent, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Advocates used it to justify westward expansion, the annexation of Texas, and conflicts with Mexico, while critics warned it encouraged war and the spread of slavery.
Manifest Destiny