Voltaire
This Enlightenment philosopher advocated for freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and famously urged to "crush the infamous thing" referring to religious fanaticism and superstition.
What is religious intolerance (or "écrasez l’infâme")?
This philosopher's theory that the mind at birth is a "blank slate" or tabula rasa, with knowledge coming from experience and sensation.
What is empiricism (or tabula rasa)?
Montesquieu's most famous idea from The Spirit of the Laws, dividing government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches to prevent tyranny.
What is separation of powers (or checks and balances)?
Hobbes described life in the state of nature as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" due to constant war of all against all.
What is the state of nature?
Machiavelli's famous advice in The Prince: It is better to be this than loved, if you cannot be both.
What is feared?
Voltaire's satirical novella that mocks optimism and the idea that this is the "best of all possible worlds," critiquing Leibniz's philosophy.
What is Candide?
Locke's famous natural rights that governments must protect: life, liberty, and this.
What is property?
Montesquieu classified governments into republics (based on virtue), monarchies (based on honor), and this type (based on fear).
What is despotism?
In Leviathan, Hobbes argued people surrender rights to an absolute sovereign for security via this agreement.
What is social contract?
This Italian thinker's pragmatic view that rulers should do whatever is necessary to maintain power, often summarized as "the ends justify the means."
What is Machiavellianism (or political realism)?
This French thinker was a deist who believed social progress comes through reason and that no authority should be immune to rational challenge.
What is Voltaire (or reason over superstition)?
In his Two Treatises of Government, Locke argued that people have the right to revolt if a government violates the social contract and fails to protect these rights.
What is the right to revolution (or consent of the governed)?
This philosopher argued that climate, customs, and other factors influence laws and the "spirit" of a nation's government.
What is the influence of climate (or general spirit)?
Hobbes believed humans are naturally selfish and driven by fear of death, requiring strong government to maintain order.
What is absolute sovereignty (or authoritarian rule)?
Machiavelli argued a prince must appear merciful but be willing to use cruelty if it secures the state.
What is the appearance vs. reality (or virtù and fortuna)?
Famous Voltaire quote: "It is forbidden to kill; therefore all murderers are punished unless they kill in large numbers and to the sound of trumpets."
What is a critique of war and hypocrisy?
Locke's quote: "Being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions."
What is the state of nature (or natural law)?
Famous Montesquieu quote: "When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person... there can be no liberty."
What is the need for separation of powers?
Famous Hobbes quote: "The condition of man... is a condition of war of everyone against everyone."
What is bellum omnium contra omnes (or war of all against all)?
Famous Machiavelli quote: "Everyone sees what you appear to be, few experience what you really are."
What is the importance of appearances in politics?
Voltaire's key belief emphasizing tolerance, especially religious, as seen in his work Treatise on Tolerance.
What is religious tolerance (or freedom of religion)?
This English thinker is known as the "father of liberalism" for promoting limited government, religious toleration, and government by consent.
What is John Locke?
Montesquieu's key work that influenced the U.S. Constitution by promoting moderate government and liberty through balanced institutions.
What is The Spirit of the Laws?
This 17th-century philosopher's materialism viewed the universe as purely corporeal and government as necessary to avoid chaos.
What is Thomas Hobbes?
In The Prince, Machiavelli drew from historical examples like Cesare Borgia to advise rulers on acquiring and keeping power realistically.
What is amoral political strategy (or realpolitik)?