Memory Models
What is the main difference between the Multi-Store Memory Model and the Working Memory Model? (Include key components of each model.)
The Multi-Store Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) posits that memory is processed in a linear sequence: sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory. The Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch) suggests that short-term memory is more complex, with multiple components like the central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, and visuospatial sketchpad.
What is a schema in cognitive psychology, and how does it influence memory according to Bartlett (1932)?
A schema is a cognitive framework or mental structure that organizes and interprets information based on past experiences. According to Bartlett (1932), schemas influence memory by affecting how information is encoded, stored, and retrieved, potentially leading to distortions.
What is reconstructive memory, and how does it differ from an exact copy of events?
Reconstructive memory refers to the idea that memory is not a perfect replica of events but is reconstructed based on a combination of prior knowledge, beliefs, and external sources. It can be influenced by schemas, leading to potential distortions.
What is a flashbulb memory, and how are these types of memories different from ordinary memories.
A flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often accompanied by high confidence. These memories tend to be more persistent, though they may still be subject to distortion over time.
One ethical consideration in psychological studies that involves ensuring that participants are fully aware of the research procedures and any potential risks before agreeing to participate.
What is informed consent?
Which study demonstrated the existence of the primacy and recency effects in memory, and what do these effects suggest about memory storage?
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) demonstrated the primacy and recency effects through the serial position curve. The primacy effect refers to better recall of words presented at the beginning of a list (due to rehearsal into long-term memory), and the recency effect refers to better recall of words presented at the end of a list (still in short-term memory).
In Brewer and Treyens (1981), what was the purpose of asking participants to recall items from an office setting, and what did it reveal about the role of schemas in memory?
In Brewer and Treyens (1981), participants were asked to recall objects from an office setting. They were more likely to recall objects that fit their office schema (like a desk or chair) and omit objects that didn’t fit (like a brick). This showed how schemas influence memory recall.
What is the study of Loftus and Palmer's (1974) study on eyewitness testimony?
Loftus and Palmer (1974) found that the verb used in the question ("hit" vs. "smash") affected participants’ recall of the car crash, with those hearing the word "smash" reporting faster speeds and more severe damage. This demonstrated how leading questions can distort eyewitness memory.
In the study on 9/11 flashbulb memories, Sharot et al. found that the amygdala showed higher activation when participants who were closer to the World Trade Center recalled memories of the event. What biological structure is believed to play a key role in this process?
The amygdala plays a crucial role in processing emotional responses and influences the encoding of emotional memories. It enhances memory retention for emotionally significant events, making them more vivid and enduring.
This research method involves the collection of qualitative data through in-depth interviews or open-ended surveys, often used to explore participants' thoughts, feelings, and experiences in great detail.
A case study
In Milner’s (1966) case study of HM, what specific memory impairment did HM experience, and how does this support the idea of separate memory stores?
HM (Milner, 1966) had damage to his hippocampus, which caused anterograde amnesia, meaning he couldn't form new long-term memories, but his short-term memory remained intact. This supports the idea that long-term and short-term memory are separate systems.
What was the main conclusion of Anderson and Pitchert (1977) about how schemas influence memory recall? How did changing perspectives affect recall?
Anderson and Pitchert (1977) found that when participants changed their perspective (from burglar to homebuyer), they recalled different details from the same story. This demonstrated how schemas guide memory retrieval and how changing perspectives can activate different schemas.
What was the study of Loftus and Pickrell (1995)?
Loftus and Pickrell (1995) demonstrated that participants could be led to believe they were lost in a mall when they never were. This was done by planting false memories, showing that memories can be manipulated or created by suggestion.
This 1977 study found that participants recalled the circumstances surrounding major emotional events, like the assassination of President Kennedy, with high confidence and vivid detail. What is the name of the study that introduced flashbulb memories?
Brown & Kulik (1977)
A research method that uses a detailed examination of a single individual or group and involves collecting both qualitative and quantitative data over a long period of time, often used in cognitive psychology to understand specific phenomena.
A longitudinal study
What key feature of the phonological loop was explored in Landry and Bartling's (2011)?
Landry and Bartling (2011) explored the phonological loop by having participants rehearse a list of letters while performing a concurrent articulation task (saying “the, the, the…”). This reduced their ability to recall the letters, showing that the phonological loop has limited capacity when interference is introduced.
What is the study that demonstrate the influence of schemas on memory recall?
Brewer and Treyens (1981) found that participants' memories of an office were influenced by their pre-existing office schema. They accurately remembered typical office items but also falsely recalled objects that fit the office schema, even though they weren’t present. This shows that schemas shape memory recall, leading people to remember details that align with their expectations.
In Yuille and Cutshall's (1986) study what did they find about the reliability of memories for emotional events?
Yuille and Cutshall (1986) studied eyewitnesses to a real shooting and found that despite the traumatic nature of the event, their memories were relatively accurate. This suggested that emotional events may lead to more vivid and lasting memories, although some inaccuracies still occurred.
In the study on 9/11 flashbulb memories, Sharot et al. found that the amygdala showed higher activation when participants who were closer to the World Trade Center recalled memories of the event. What biological structure is believed to play a key role in this process?
What is the amygdala?
Explain the use of one research method in one study of the effect of emotion on cognition.
In Sharot et al.'s (2007) study on flashbulb memories following the 9/11 attacks, a quasi-experiment was used. This method involved participants who were already in New York City during the attacks, rather than randomly assigning them to a condition.
How did the case of KF (Warrington and Shallice, 1974) provide evidence for the separation of short-term memory into different systems?
KF (Warrington & Shallice, 1974) had a damaged left parietal lobe, which impaired his short-term memory, but he could still store information in long-term memory. This evidence suggests that short-term memory may be split into separate systems (e.g., verbal vs. visual).
How does schema theory explain memory distortion?
In Bartlett’s (1932) "War of the Ghosts," participants remembered the story differently depending on their cultural schemas. They simplified and altered unfamiliar details (like replacing a canoe with a boat), showing how schemas can lead to memory distortion.
What is the challenger disaster and who conducted the study?
Neisser and Harsch (1992) found that participants’ memories of the Challenger disaster were often inaccurate, even though they were confident about their recollections. This showed that flashbulb memories, while vivid, can also be subject to distortion over time.
What is a limitation of Brown & Kulik’s 1977 study?
Lack of evidence for a biological mechanism
Explain one ethical consideration in one study of the reliability of cognitive processes.
Brown & Kulik's (1977) study on flashbulb memories is informed consent. Participants were asked to recall highly emotional events, such as the assassination of President Kennedy, which could have caused distress or discomfort.