Cognitive Explanations for Stress

Transactional Model of Stress

100

According to the transactional model of stress, what are the two key processes individuals use to evaluate and cope with stress?

According to the Transactional Model of Stress by Lazarus and Folkman, the two key processes individuals use to evaluate and cope with stress are:

1. Primary Appraisal – (This is when a person assesses whether a situation is a threat, challenge, or irrelevant to them.)
2. Secondary Appraisal – (This is when the person evaluates their available resources and options for coping with the stressor.)

200

How does secondary appraisal influence an individual’s stress response?

If an individual believes they have sufficient resources to cope, stress is reduced. If they believe they lack resources, stress increases, leading to physiological and emotional responses.

300

What is the main idea/theme of Lazarus and Folkman's Transactional Model of Stress? 

The model suggests that stress is the result of an interaction (or "transaction") between an individual and their environment, where stress depends on how a person appraises a situation and their ability to cope with it.

400

How does the Transactional Model of Stress differ from biological models of stress (e.g., Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome)?

Unlike biological models that focus on automatic physiological responses to stress, the Transactional Model emphasizes cognitive appraisal and individual differences in how stress is perceived and managed.

500

Give an example of how the Transactional Model of Stress could be applied to a real-life situation.

A student facing an upcoming exam may appraise it as a challenge (motivating them to study) or as a threat (causing anxiety). If they believe they have effective study strategies (secondary appraisal), they will feel more confident and experience less stress.

Transactional Model of Stress

100

What are the possible outcomes of primary appraisal in the Transactional Model of Stress?

• Irrelevant (no impact on well-being)

• Benign-positive (potentially beneficial)

• Stressful (perceived as a challenge, threat, or harm/loss)

200

What are the two key types of cognitive appraisal in the Transactional Model of Stress? Define each.

Primary appraisal: The individual evaluates whether an event is irrelevant, positive, or stressful. If it is stressful, they determine whether it is a threat, challenge, or harm/loss.

Secondary appraisal: The individual assesses their ability to cope with the situation and what resources are available to manage it.

300

What is meant by "reappraisal" in the Transactional Model of Stress, and why is it important?

Reappraisal refers to the ongoing process of reassessing a situation based on new information or changes in circumstances. It is important because it allows individuals to adjust their coping strategies and potentially reduce stress over time.

400

How does the concept of reappraisal play a role in the transactional model of stress, and why is it important in stress management?

Reappraisal refers to the process of reassessing a situation after the initial appraisal and coping attempt. If new information becomes available or if coping efforts change the situation, an individual may update their appraisal, leading to a different emotional response. Reappraisal is crucial in stress management because it allows individuals to adjust their perceptions, reduce distress, and adopt more effective coping strategies over time.

500

How do individual differences, such as personality and past experiences, influence the primary and secondary appraisal stages in the transactional model of stress?

Individual differences, such as personality traits (e.g., optimism vs. neuroticism) and past experiences, significantly shape how a person perceives stressors. For example, an optimistic person might view a challenge as an opportunity for growth (positive primary appraisal), whereas a neurotic individual might see the same event as a major threat. Similarly, past experiences with similar stressors can impact secondary appraisal—someone who has successfully managed a similar challenge before may feel more confident in their coping abilities, reducing stress levels.

Jamieson et al

100

What was the experimental task used in Jamieson et al. (2011) to induce stress in participants?

The Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), which involved delivering a speech and performing mental arithmetic in front of evaluators.

200

Jamieson et al. (2011) investigated cognitive reappraisal in stress responses. What was the main finding of their study regarding how individuals can reinterpret stress?

The study found that when participants were encouraged to reappraise their stress response as beneficial (rather than harmful), they exhibited lower physiological stress responses and performed better on a stressful task.

300

How did the reappraisal condition in Jamieson et al. (2011) differ from the control condition, and what impact did it have on physiological stress markers?

Participants in the reappraisal condition were told that stress responses (e.g., increased heart rate) could help improve performance. Compared to the control group, they showed lower vasoconstriction (a marker of cardiovascular stress) and performed better on the task.

400

How does the study support the concept of primary and secondary appraisal in the Transactional Model of Stress?

• Primary appraisal: Participants assessed the stress-inducing task (e.g., public speaking) as either a challenge or a threat.
• Secondary appraisal: Those in the reappraisal condition were guided to reinterpret their stress response as helpful, influencing their coping strategy and leading to improved cardiovascular responses and performance.

This supports the Transactional Model, which emphasizes the role of cognitive interpretation in shaping stress responses.

500

How does Jamieson et al.’s (2011) study challenge traditional views on stress management?

Traditional stress management techniques often focus on reducing or avoiding stress. Jamieson et al. (2011), however, suggest that reappraising stress responses as beneficial can enhance performance and improve physiological outcomes, aligning with the "stress-is-enhancing" mindset rather than the typical "stress-is-harmful" perspective

Speisman et al

100

What was the aim of Speisman's study?

The aim of the study was to investigate how cognitive appraisal (the interpretation of a situation) influences an individual’s emotional response to a stressful stimulus.

200

Describe the research method used in Speisman's study 

They used a laboratory experiment in which participants watched a film of an unpleasant genital surgery (a traditional initiation ceremony). The film was accompanied by different audio commentaries to manipulate the participants’ appraisal of the e

300

Speisman et al. (1964) used a film depicting a stressful event to study cognitive appraisal. What were the different conditions (soundtracks) used in the study?

The conditions included:

• Trauma condition (emphasizing pain and suffering)

• Denial condition (downplaying the negative aspects)

• Intellectualization condition (giving an anthropological perspective)

• Control condition (no soundtrack)

400

According to Speisman et al. (1964), how did different cognitive appraisals influence participants' physiological stress responses?

Participants who heard the trauma soundtrack had the highest physiological stress response (e.g., increased heart rate and galvanic skin response), whereas those in the denial and intellectualization conditions had lower stress responses, demonstrating that cognitive appraisal influences emotional and physiological reactions.

500

How does Speisman's study support the Transactional Model of Stress?

It supports the idea that stress is not just a direct reaction to an event but is influenced by how the event is appraised. The study showed that different interpretations of the same situation led to different stress responses.

Anything goes

100

What is the name of the model of stress developed by Lazarus and Folkman?

Transactional Model of Stress 

200

What are some of the strengths of Spiesman's study?

• Controlled experiment: High internal validity due to the manipulation of variables.
• Physiological measures: Objective data rather than relying on self-reporting.
• Supports cognitive theories of emotion: Demonstrates the role of appraisal in emotional response.

300

Explain how the findings of Speisman and/or Jamieson's studies can be applied to real life. 

The findings suggest that reframing or reinterpreting stressful events (e.g., using a more detached or positive perspective) can reduce stress responses, which is a technique used in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

400

Spiesman et al. (1964) and Jamieson et al. (2011) both investigated the role of cognitive appraisal in stress responses.

Compare and contrast the two studies in terms of their methodology, findings, and contribution to the understanding of the Transactional Model of Stress. Evaluate how each study supports or challenges the model, considering strengths, limitations, and real-world applications.

-Both lab experiments, Speisman's was an external stressor, Jamieson's involved an internal stressor

-Speisman largely supports primary appraisal, Jamieson supports secondary appraisal 

-Real world applications: 

• Teachers, coaches, and therapists could use Jamieson’s findings to train people to reframe stress as a positive force.
• News and media organizations could use Spiesman’s findings to shape how distressing events are presented to the public.

500

Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in determining an individual’s stress response. However, some researchers argue that biological and environmental factors play a more significant role in stress reactions than cognitive appraisal.

Critically evaluate the extent to which cognitive appraisal, as proposed in the model, can override physiological and situational influences on stress. Support your answer with research evidence and real-world examples

Key Points for Answering the Question:

1. Explain the Transactional Model of Stress

• Developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), the model emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in stress.
• Primary appraisal – Evaluating if an event is a threat, challenge, or benign.
• Secondary appraisal – Assessing available coping resources to deal with the stressor.
• Stress arises when perceived demands exceed perceived coping abilities.

2. The Role of Cognitive Appraisal in Stress Response

• Stress is not just about the event but how a person interprets it.
• Example: Two students facing an exam—one sees it as a challenge (positive stress), the other as a threat (negative stress).
• Empirical Support:
  • Speisman et al. (1964) – Showed that different audio commentaries changed participants' stress reactions to a distressing film.
  • Jamieson et al. (2011) – Participants who reappraised stress as beneficial had better cardiovascular responses and performance.

3. Biological and Environmental Influences on Stress

• The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) triggers an automatic fight-or-flight response before conscious appraisal.
• Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – Suggests that stress follows a biological pattern: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
• Criticism of Cognitive Appraisal – Some stressors (e.g., loud noises, life-threatening situations) elicit stress before cognitive processing occurs.
• Example: A soldier in combat may experience a stress reaction even before processing the situation cognitively.

4. Can Cognitive Appraisal Override Biological and Situational Stress?

• YES, in some cases:
  • Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) helps individuals reframe stressors, reducing anxiety and improving coping strategies.
  • Mindfulness and stress reappraisal techniques have been used in high-performance fields (e.g., athletes, public speakers).
• NO, in other cases:
  • Extreme trauma (e.g., PTSD) can trigger automatic stress responses, making cognitive appraisal ineffective.
  • Chronic stress can lead to biological wear-and-tear, even if a person cognitively reappraises the stressor.

5. Conclusion – A Balanced View

• Cognitive appraisal plays a crucial role in stress perception and management.
• However, biological predispositions and environmental factors can override or limit cognitive control.
• Future research should integrate cognitive and physiological models to create a more holistic approach to stress management.