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Memory models
Flashbulb Theory
Affects on Memory
Emotions
Research Studies
100
What models or theories of memory have we studied?
- Atkinson and Shiffrin's 'multi-store model' of memory - Craik and Lockhart's 'level of processing model' of memory
100
Who suggested the theory of falshbulb memory?
Brown and Kulik (1977).
100
What are the types of social and cultural factors that affect our memory?
(1) Poverty related to stress, (2) poor nutrition and (3) social and physical activity.
100
What are the three interacting components for emotion?
Physiology, feelings and behaviour.
100
What research studies associate with eye witness testimony?
Loftus and Palmer (1974); investigate how information supplied after an event, influences a witness's memory for that event.
200
Explain the stages of levels of processing theory.
The early stages of processing are "shallow" and involve coding the stimulus in terms of its physical characteristics (e.g. the visual characteristics of the letters and typeface in which a word is printed, or the acoustic features of a sound). "Deep" processing involves coding the stimulus more abstractly in terms of its meaning, so visual and acoustic coding are shallow but semantic coding is deep.
200
Explain the theory of flashbulb memory?
According to Brown and Kulik, Flashbulb memory is a special kind of emotional memory, which refers to vivid and detailed meories of highly emotional events that appear to be recorded in the brain as though with help of cameras flash.
200
Does poor nutrition show a causal relationship?
Research in this area is helpful but by no means does it show a casual relationship. Clearly, it would be unethical to deprive children of adequate nutrition in order to ascertain the impact on memory.
200
What are emotions?
(1) An emotion involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviour and conscioius experience. (2) What psychologists do agree on is that emotions contain both a cognitive and physiological element. (3) What they do not agree on is, which comes first - when we encounter a situation that scares us, do we become aroused and from this state of arousal deduce that we are scared? Or do we decide mentally that the situation is scary, which then causes our physiology to react?
200
What does this statement mean; 'some researchers refer to memory as being reconstructive in nature'?
The term reconstructive refers to the brain's active processing of information in order to make sense of the world.
300
State why that levels of processing theory does not really explain why deeper levels of processing is more effective?
Eysenck (1990) claims that it describes rather than explains what is happening. However, recent studies have clarified this point - it appears that deeper coding produces better retention because it is more elaborate. Elaborative encoding enriches the memory representation of an item by activating many aspects of its meaning and linking it into the pre-existing network of semantic associations. Deep level semantic coding tends to be more elaborated than shallow physical coding and this is probably why it worked better.
300
What is the 'structure' of flashbulb memory?
The flashbulb memories are governed by a specific structure, such as place (where were we?), activity (what were we doing?), informant (who told us?), and the affect (how did we feel about it?).
300
What are some biological factors that may affect our memory?
Alzheimer's disease, brain damage such as damage to the hippocampus and sleep deprivation.
300
State theories related to emotion.
(1) James-Lange Theory. (2) Cannon-Bard Theory. (3) Schachter-Singer (Two factor theory). (4) Cognitive-Appraisal Theory (Lazarus).
300
What research studies associate with reconstructive memory; schema theory?
Bartlett's research; "The War of the Ghosts" (1932).
400
What are some strengths and weaknesses of multi-storage model of memory?
Strengths; (1) Empirical evidence to support the existence of different sections of memory. i.e. STM, LTM and sensory memory (e.g. serial position effect). (2) There has also been clinical evidence that gives weight to the idea of STM and LTM as separate memory stores (e.g. HM case study). (3) Evidence to support the importance of rehersal. (4) It sparked research at the time and it has been one of the most influential models to date. It served as a basis for the development of other models of memory. Weaknesses; (1) Rehearsal is a vital factor in transferring information from STM to LTM. Researchers such as Jenkins argue that, it is not the rehearsal itelf that is important, but rather what we do with the information. (2) It makes no attempt to explain how the processing and storage of information affects behaviour. (3) Model is seen as reductionist, inflexible and too simplistic.
400
How consistent is flashbulb memory?
Flashbulb memories are not immune to forgetting, nor are they uncommonly consistent over time. This seems to be strong evidence for the absence of a spcial mechanism for the consistency of flashbulb memories. Instead, exaggerated belief in memory's accuracy at long delays, belief that is unrelated to true memory consistency, is what may have led to the conviction, even among some researchers, that flashbulb memories are more accurate than everyday memories.
400
Is there a theory as to why increased social interaction may have a positive impact on memory is related to the hormone oxytocin?
There is evidence to suggest that this hormonne which is associated with lactation (breast feeding) may also be associated with human bonding or relationship. A study conducted by Gustella, shows that one way oxytocin may promote social affiliation in humans is by enhancing the encoding of positive social memories. The findings indicate that oxytocin may facilitate the encoding of positive social information over social information that is either neutral or negative.
400
What theory suggests that our physiology (biology) and our cognitions create emotions? And explain.
The two factor theory (results in the misattribution of arousal in certain situations) suggets that our physiology and our cognitions create emotions; the two factors of physiological arousal and a cognitive label. The body cannot tell us exactly what we are or should be feeling. Instead, even if we have a fast bodily reaction to something, it is our mind that decides what the emotion will be. Indicating that our bildy reactions (arousal) can be wrongly attributed (cognitively) to different situations.
400
Discuss whether memory is reliable according to Loftus and Palmer's research and its overall?
Loftus and Palmer's research indicates that it is possible to create a false memory using post event information. Memory is a complex cognitive process that appears to be affected by a number of factors. The extent to which these factors influence memory may depend on the situation and the individual. Furthermore, it is also a complex concept to research. There are strengths and weakness in each of the different pieces of research examined. To conclude, to some extent memory is in fact accurate in many instances, it is open to inaccuracy due to its reconstructive nature.
500
What (interesting) finding can you make for Hyde & Jenkins (1973) experiment, the levels of processing theory?
A finding says that incidental learners performed just as well as intentional learners in all tasks- this suggests that it is the nature of the processing that determines how much you will remembeer rather than intention to learn. But when you are revising - the more processing you perform on the information such as quizzes, essays, spider diagrams etc., the more likely you are to remember it.
500
What are some level of strengths in light bulb memory?
Some research have received a consistency score of at least 9 out of a possible 10 points. A special mechanism is needed to explain flashbulb memories but the findings assumed that the initial descriptions were accurate. When the delayed recollections obtained by Conway et al. (1994) were compared to later recollections, fewer inconsistencies were observed becuase both are at a similar level of vagueness. Also, this delay in original recall may have already resulted in the original information already being changed into a more easily remembered narrative.
500
What are the principles of the sociocultural level of analysis?
One principle is that culture influences behaviour. Culture can be defined as the norms and values that define a society. The study of culture may help us to better understand and appreciate cultural differences. Another principle is that, because humans are social animals, they have a social self. People do not only have an individual identity, but also a collective or social one. Social identities are very important to be definition of who we are, and many behaviours are determined by membership of groups such as family, community, club or nationality.
500
Draw a conclusion for the two factor theory.
The theory seems clear that physiology and cognition interact in some way in order to form emotional experiences. However, a decision as to what way they interact appears to be controversial. It does not matter which theory you support, but what is more important is that you can clearly discuss the weaknesses and benefits or each of the different theories and conclude them based on sound evidence.
500
What are the strengths for scheme theory?
One of the strengths of schema theory is that there has been a great deal of supporting research in the area. The theory seems quite useful for understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories, and make inferences, amongst other things. Scheme theory has contributed to an understanding of memory distortions. Furthermore, it has provided useful in helping to explain stereotyping and prejudice.