Evolution of Computers
What Generation is being described:
Its Key Features are Large size, high power consumption, significant heat generation, limited processing power.
First Generation
This functional unit is often considered the brain of a computer or digital system.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
is the foundation of data representation in computers. It uses only two digits, 0 and 1, to represent all data.
Binary System
In this mode, the CPU is responsible for managing all data transfers. The CPU executes a program that issues read and write commands to the I/O device.
Programmed I/O (PIO)
a structure that uses various types of memory storage, each with different speed and size characteristics, to achieve a balance between cost and performance.
Memory Hierarchy
What Generation is being described:
Key Features: Emphasis on AI, machine learning, natural language processing, human-computer interaction.
Fifth Generation
This functional unit is is responsible for storing data and instructions that the system's processor (CPU) needs to access quickly
Memory Unit
Characters are encoded into binary using standardized schemes to ensure consistent interpretation across different systems.
Text Representation
The CPU initiates the I/O operation and then continues executing other instructions. The I/O device interrupts the CPU when it is ready to transfer data.
Interrupt-Driven I/O
refers to whether data is retained when power is off.
Volatility
What Generation is being described:
Key Features: Smaller size, less heat, more reliable, more energy-efficient than vacuum tubes.
Second Generation
This functional unit is Responsible for receiving data or instructions from external sources, such as users or other systems.
Input Unit
Data is stored in memory (RAM) or on storage devices (hard drives, SSDs) in binary form.
Storage Units
Uses the same address space for both memory and I/O devices. The CPU can use standard instructions to access I/O devices.
Memory-Mapped I/O
Techniques used to handle memory allocation and access efficiently.
Memory Management
What Generation is being described:
Key Features: Further miniaturization, significant increase in processing power, personal computers become common.
Fourth Generation
This functional unit is responsible for presenting processed data or results to the user or to other systems. It converts electronic signals into human-readable or machine-readable forms.
Output Unit
Organize and store data efficiently. Common data structures include arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, and graphs.
Data Structures
Uses separate address spaces for memory and I/O devices. Special instructions are used to access I/O devices.
Isolated I/O (Port-Mapped I/O)
a small, high-speed memory located close to the CPU. It temporarily stores copies of frequently accessed data from main memory to reduce access time.
Cache Memory
What Generation is being described:
Key Features: Even smaller, more powerful, more reliable, capable of multitasking
Third Generation
This functional unit is responsible for performing arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical operations on binary data.
Arithmetic and Logical Unit
Different types of files store data in various structured formats to facilitate specific types of data processing.
File Formats
Utilizes a separate I/O processor (channel) to manage I/O operations, allowing the main CPU to focus on other tasks.
Channel I/O
is the rate at which data can be read from or written to memory. It is measured in bytes per second (Bps).
Memory Bandwidth