Courts & Criminal Trials
What system does the U.S. use where opposing sides present their cases to an impartial judge or jury?
The Adversarial System
What historical institution and practices influenced the development of modern American policing in the South?
Slave patrols
Name two common causes of wrongful convictions.
Eyewitness misidentification and false confessions (also acceptable: prosecutorial misconduct, inadequate defense, forensic errors, false testimony)
What is Parens Patriae?
State acts as guardian for youth
What is rape culture?
Rape culture is a social environment where sexual violence is normalized, trivialized, or excused through attitudes, beliefs, jokes, media, and language that treat sexual violence as inevitable or acceptable.
What is the purpose and limit of plea bargaining in the criminal process?
Efficiency + reduced sentencing, but may pressure guilty pleas
What term describes the blending of criminal law enforcement with immigration control?
Crimmigration
What term describes forensic techniques used in court that appear scientific but lack reliable evidence or validation?
Junk Science
What are two classic purposes that have been used to justify punishment?
Deterrence, retribution, incapacitation, rehabilitation
What is the legal definition of a hate crime?
A hate crime is a criminal offense motivated by bias against a person's race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, or other protected characteristic.
What constitutional amendment protects against self-incrimination and guarantees due process?
The 5th Amendment
What is the difference between probable cause and reasonable suspicion?
Probable cause is a higher standard requiring facts that would lead a reasonable person to believe a crime has been or is being committed. Reasonable suspicion is a lower standard requiring only specific, articulable facts that criminal activity may be occurring, sufficient for a brief stop but not an arrest.
What are the main arguments against the death penalty?"
No deterrent effect, excessive cost, and risk of executing innocents
What are status offenses?
Crimes only for minors (truancy, curfew, running away)
What does Title IX require?
Schools must address sexual misconduct + protect victims
What do we call a DA’s power to decide whether to file charges, reduce charges, or drop a case entirely?
Prosecutorial discretion
Which concept describes the finding that first-generation immigrants often have lower crime and victimization rates than U.S.-born individuals?
The immigrant paradox.
What do we call it when prosecutors fail to disclose exculpatory evidence to the defense?
Brady Violation
What term is used for punitive school discipline pushes youth into justice system
The School-to-Prison Pipeline
What term describes how hate crimes communicate intimidation to an entire community rather than only harming one victim?
Message Crimes
Name two factors where the socioeconomic status of the defendant can alter court outcomes?
Better representation, pre-trial release through bail, stronger negotiating position, ability to delay or challenge evidence.
Why are local law enforcement agencies generally not responsible for enforcing immigration law?
Because immigration status violations fall under federal civil jurisdiction, not local criminal authority.
What court process reviews death-sentence cases for legal or procedural errors before an execution can occur?
Appellate courts review trial errors, reviews legality and sentencing, and may overturn convictions or remand for new proceedings.
How does brain development justify juvenile leniency?
Youth have less impulse control → greater capacity to reform
How does intersectionality explain why some individuals face higher risks of both hate crimes and sexual violence?
People with multiple marginalized identities (e.g., LGBTQ+ people of color, immigrant women) experience compounded vulnerabilities and may be targeted based on multiple characteristics simultaneously, facing unique forms of violence that can't be understood by looking at single identities alone.