Operant Conditioning
What is operant conditioning?
Operant conditioning is a learning process through which the strength of a behaviour is modified by reinforcement or punishment.
What is social learning theory?
Social learning theory posits that behaviour is learned through observation and imitation of others, particularly role models.
What is a genetic explanation of criminality?
A genetic explanation suggests that certain genes may predispose individuals to criminal behaviour.
What is recidivism?
Recidivism refers to the tendency of previously incarcerated individuals to reoffend and return to prison.
What is a token economy program?
A token economy program is a behavioural treatment system that rewards individuals with tokens for positive behaviour, which can be exchanged for privileges or items.
What was the main aim of Bandura, Ross, and Ross's (1961) study?
To investigate whether children would imitate aggression demonstrated by an observed adult.
What was the primary aim of Charlton et al.'s (2000) study?
To investigate the effects of television on children's behavior on the island of St Helena.
Describe one strength and one limitation
A strength is that it explains how behaviours can be shaped by consequences, making it applicable to a wide range of criminal acts.
A limitation is that it neglects internal factors such as thoughts and motivations that may influence criminal behaviour.
Discuss one strength and one weakness of social learning theory.
A strength is that it accounts for the influence of environmental factors and role models on behaviour. A weakness is that it may downplay the role of biological factors such as genetics in shaping behaviour.
What is one strength and one limitation of using twin studies to investigate criminality?
A strength is that twin studies can provide insights into the hereditary nature of criminality by comparing concordance rates.
A limitation is that they may not account for environmental similarities that influence behaviour.
Discuss one strength and one limitation of prison as a form of punishment.
A strength is that prison removes offenders from society, preventing them from committing further crimes. A limitation is that it can expose inmates to criminal influences, potentially leading to increased recidivism.
Discuss one strength and one limitation of anger management programs.
A strength is that they can provide offenders with coping strategies to manage their emotions, reducing the likelihood of violent behaviour.
A limitation is that not all offenders may be motivated to change, limiting the effectiveness of the program.
What is one specific strength of Bandura's study related to its experimental control?
The researchers used a standardized procedure, ensuring that all children experienced the same conditions, which enhances the reliability of the findings.
What is a specific limitation of Charlton et al.'s study regarding the generalizability of its findings?
The study was conducted in a unique community that may not represent broader populations, limiting the ability to generalize the results to other environments.
Explain how positive reinforcement can lead to criminal behaviour.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a behaviour is followed by a rewarding consequence, encouraging the behaviour to be repeated. For example, if a person steals and receives money or praise, they may be more likely to steal again.
Explain how vicarious reinforcement can affect a child's behaviour.
Vicarious reinforcement occurs when a child observes a role model being rewarded for a behaviour, which motivates the child to imitate that behaviour in hopes of receiving similar rewards. For instance, if a child sees a sibling rewarded for sharing their toys, they may be inclined to share as well.
Explain how Eysenck's personality theory relates to criminal behaviour.
Eysenck's personality theory posits that individuals with high scores in extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour. This is justified by the idea that these traits can lead to impulsivity and a lack of empathy, making antisocial behaviour more likely.
Explain how community sentencing can reduce recidivism.
Community sentencing allows offenders to serve their punishment while remaining integrated in society, which reduces the likelihood of forming criminal associations. Additionally, it provides opportunities for rehabilitation through community service, which may foster a sense of responsibility.
Explain how token economies can be used in a prison setting.
Token economies work by rewarding inmates with tokens for positive behaviours, such as following rules or participating in programs. These tokens can then be exchanged for privileges, creating an incentive for good behaviour and promoting a positive environment within the prison.
Explain how social learning theory relates to the findings of Bandura's study.
Social learning theory posits that behavior is learned through observation and imitation; Bandura's study demonstrated that children could learn aggressive behaviors simply by observing an adult model, highlighting the role of external influences on behavior.
Explain how the concept of a natural experiment applies to Charlton’s study.
A natural experiment occurs in real-life settings without manipulation by researchers; Charlton’s study observed children's behavior before and after the introduction of television in a natural context, providing insights into actual behavioral changes.
List the four types of reinforcement and punishment in operant conditioning.
Positive reinforcement: Rewarding a behaviour to increase its occurrence.
Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour.
Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant consequence to decrease a behaviour.
Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour.
Identify and describe the four processes involved in observational learning.
Attention: The individual must pay attention to the behaviour being modelled.
Retention: The behaviour must be remembered for later reproduction.
Reproduction: The individual must have the ability to replicate the observed behaviour.
Motivation: The individual must have a reason to imitate the behaviour, often influenced by observed rewards.
List the personality traits identified by Eysenck's theory and their implications for criminality.
Extraversion: May lead to sensation-seeking behaviours.
Neuroticism: Can result in emotional instability and impulsivity.
Psychoticism: Associated with a lack of empathy and antisocial behaviour.
Identify and describe the three types of sentencing discussed in the context of recidivism
Prison Sentencing: Involves incarceration, removing offenders from society.
Community Sentencing: Involves serving a sentence in the community through activities like community service.
Restorative Justice: Focuses on repairing harm caused by criminal behaviour through reconciliation between offenders and victims.
Identify and describe the key components of effective anger management programs.
Cognitive restructuring: Helps offenders identify and change negative thought patterns.
Relaxation techniques: Teaches methods for calming down in stressful situations.
Social skills training: Improves communication and interpersonal skills to handle conflicts without aggression.
Outline the main stages of the procedure used in Bandura’s study.
Children were matched based on their aggression levels.
They were exposed to either an aggressive or non-aggressive role model.
After observing the model, children were allowed to play with toys.
Their behavior was then observed and recorded through a one-way mirror for 20 minutes.
List the main steps of the procedure followed in Charlton et al.'s study.
Observed children's behavior for 2 weeks before television introduction.
Collected data on prosocial and antisocial acts using video recordings.
Returned 5 years later to observe behavior after television was introduced.
Analyzed the recordings to compare pre- and post-television behavior.
A teenager is caught shoplifting and receives a fine. Discuss how this punishment could influence their future behaviour
The fine serves as positive punishment, which may deter them from shoplifting in the future.
They may associate negative feelings with the act of shoplifting, leading to behaviour change.
Alternatively, if they perceive the fine as a minor consequence, they may continue to engage in shoplifting.
A child witnesses a parent commit a minor act of theft. How might this experience influence the child's future behaviour?
The child may view theft as acceptable behaviour if the parent is not punished.
They may imitate the behaviour, believing it to be a viable means to achieve desired outcomes.
The child could also develop a negative perception of authority if they see the parent evade consequences.
A study finds a significant link between criminal behaviour and family history. Discuss two factors that might explain this relationship.
Genetic predisposition may influence behaviour through inherited traits that increase the likelihood of criminality.
Environmental factors, such as upbringing in a criminal household, could normalise criminal behaviour and provide a model for imitation.
After serving time in prison, an offender struggles to find employment. Discuss two reasons why this might lead to recidivism.
Difficulty in securing stable employment can lead to economic desperation, increasing the likelihood of reoffending for financial gain.
The stigma of a criminal record may push the individual back towards old criminal networks for support, reinforcing negative behaviour patterns.
A young offender participates in a token economy program. Discuss how this might influence their behaviour both during and after their time in the program.
During the program, the offender may become more compliant with rules to earn tokens, leading to improved behaviour.
Learning to associate positive behaviour with rewards may carry over after the program, promoting prosocial behaviour in the community.
The structure of the program may help them internalise positive habits, reducing the likelihood of recidivism.
Consider a scenario where a child frequently watches violent video games. How might Bandura's findings apply to this situation?
The child may imitate aggressive behaviors seen in the games.
The child might use aggressive language or phrases heard from the characters.
The child may display increased aggression towards peers during play.
How might the findings of Charlton et al.'s study inform policy decisions regarding children's media consumption?
Policies could advocate for monitoring the types of television programs available to children.
Recommendations may include implementing restrictions on violent content for younger audiences.
Educational campaigns could be designed to promote prosocial programming that encourages positive behaviors.