Varieties of English
What is Standard English?
The variety which has been accepted as the norm; Originated in the UK - the variety spoken in the politically and economically powerful triangle between Oxford, Cambridge and London; prestigious; spoken by educated people; British English, more specifically – RP (Received Pronunciation)
What is linguistic imperialism?
Linguistic imperialism is the imposition of one language on speakers of other languages.
Why is English considered global lingua franca?
It's the native or first language of a large number of people across several countries; an official language of several countries; a second language required in contexts such as education and business in many countries; a popular choice as a foreign or additional language; a recognised business language and used as a lingua franca in international meetings; one of the official languages of the United Nations; dominant on the internet
What does Braj Kachru's circles model represent?
The ways English is used in the world.
What is dialect levelling?
Dialect leveling refers to the reduction or elimination of marked differences between dialects over a period of time. Dialect leveling tends to occur when speakers of different dialects come into contact with one another for extended periods.
What are the characteristics of Non-standard English?
Friendly and relaxed style and tone; mostly standard grammar, but there may be some variation or room for error; some incorrect spelling to shorten words.; simpler vocabulary - direct and to the point; frequent use of contracted words; use of slang and colloquialisms; use of abbreviations
Who re-introduced the term linguistic imperialism?
Linguist Robert Phillipson (1992)
What is Globish and who coined the term?
Globish is a simplified version of Anglo-American English used as a worldwide lingua franca. The trademarked term Globish was coined by French businessman Jean-Paul Nerrière in the mid-1990s. It is English without idioms which makes it easier for non-Anglophones to understand and to communicate with one another.
The Inner Circle (the USA, the UK, Canada...), the Outer Circle (India, Pakistan, Singapore...), the Expanding Circle (Korea, Egypt, most of European countries...)
What is a language steamroller and who proposed the idea of language steamrollers?
By ‘language steamroller’ is meant the massive replacement of a region's languages by languages from the outside. The term was proposed by Jared Diamond.
What does RP stand for and what is it?
Received Pronunciation; emerged in British public schools (expensive fee-paying schools) during the 19th century; indicator of status rather than specific geographical area; spoken by upper-class citizens; sometimes called “BBC English”.
Who coined the term 'killer language' in relation to English?
Anne Pakir (1991)
Why does McCrum claim that English has a default position?
English is everyone's second language. It is completely global. It is the default position - if one foreigner meets another foreigner and they can't communicate, they are very likely to default to English.
What does McArthur's circles model represent and how is it different from Kachru's?
McArthur simply gives each geographical region its own section of the circle. This avoids the hierarchical nature of Kachru's inner vs outer presentation, instead creating that kind of relationship between standard and non-standard varieties within each location.
What is koineization and how is it different from pidginization?
Koineization is the process by which a new variety of a language emerges from the mixing, leveling, and simplifying of different dialects. Koineization requires free social interaction between speakers of the various varieties in contact, whereas pidginization results from restricted social interaction. Pidginization is most often considered a rapid process in response to a need for immediate and practical communication. In contrast, koineization is usually a process which occurs during prolonged contact between speakers who can almost always understand each other to some extent.
What are the characteristics of Standard English?
Formal and polite style or tone; standard grammar used accurately and correctly; correct spellings; advanced vocabulary and phrases; fewer or no contracted words; no slang or colloquialisms; fewer or no abbreviations.
What are possible ways of language revitalization? Name two examples of language revitalization.
Various forms of bilingual education; political movements; language legislation. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Hebrew, Basque
Who claimed that the future of English will be a complex and plural one and that the language will grow in usage and variety, yet simultaneously diminish in relative global importance?
David Graddol.
According to Kachru which countries / circles are 1 norm-developing; 2 norm-dependent; 3 norm-providing?
1 The Outer Circle: adopting and perhaps developing their own norms.
2 The Expanding Circle: rely on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle. This is a one-directional flow and learners of English as a foreign language in the Expanding Circle look to the standards set in the Inner and Outer Circles.
3 The Inner Circle: English language norms are developed in these countries and spread outwards
What is John Honey's stand on Standard English? (The Language Trap)
John Honey argues in his books that Standard English, both written and spoken, is superior to dialect in many respects. These include range of vocabulary and therefore scope for self-expression, and flexibility. He advocates that Standard English should be taught in schools and that an organisation should be set up to regulate language change.
What are the expanding circle English varieties and what are New Varieties of English (NVEs)?
ECEV - Chinglish, Spanglish, Deutschlish - joining of two (or more) different languages to form a new distinctive variety with native speakers (creolization). NVEs - regional and national varieties which have developed in places where English is not the mother tongue and which have a distinctively different form of the language -Pakistani English, Indian English and Nigerian English- developed through government administration, education and media.
What are UNESCO's five levels of language endangerment?
1 vulnerable: most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains (e.g. home)
2 definitely endangered: children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the home
3 severely endangered: language is spoken by grandparents and older generations, and, while the parent generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among themselves
4 critically endangered: the youngest speakers are grandparents and older generations, and they speak the language only partially and infrequently
5 extinct: the language is no longer spoken
According to David Crystal what is the percentage of people who speak English as their mother tongue?
1) 50%
2) 25%
2) 25%
What does Modiano's circles model represent and how is it different from Kachru's?
1 proficient speakers of English as an International Language (EIL) which does not necessarily include L1 English; 2 speakers with native or foreign language proficiency - speakers whose variety of English is far enough removed from standard EIL to require code switching when speaking internationally. 3 learners of English. 4 people who do not know English. This legitimization of non-L1 speakers is in direct opposition to Kachru’s model where it is assumed that L1 speakers are proficient.
Why does Widdowson see the processes of spread and distribution of English as being quite different?
‘Distribution implies adoption and conformity. Spread implies adaptation and non conformity’. Ghanaian and Nigerian Englishes are examples that have resulted from the spread of English. What Ghanaians and Nigerians speak ‘is another English, not a variant but a different language’ and he argues that such varieties ‘evolve into autonomous languages ultimately to the point of mutual unintelligibility’.