Chapters 1+2
Distinguish between The availability heuristic and the present/present bias
The availability heuristic capitalizes on recent memory of an event. What is most available in memory
The present/present bias occurs when one fails to consider that an event may have been caused by something not present. Incorrectly assuming the relationship between two events.
What are the three main claims outlines in chapter 3, briefly describe each
Association, Frequency, and Causal
A - There is an association between two variable, as one changes, the other does as well
F - Frequency claims make the case that a variable, event, or phenomenon occurs at X%.
C - Causal claims make the case that as one variable changes, another has to change. That one variable is the sole factor in the change of another.
Which three ethical guidelines were derived from the Belmont report? Describe each
Beneficence, Justice, Respect for Persons
Beneficence states that the study should consider risk to the individuals and the population of interest. Will the population of interest be harmed? Risk vs Reward
Justice states that those involved in a study should be the people who benefit. those who participate should be those who benefit as well.
Respect for persons states that individuals be treated as autonomous and should be able to decide for themselves if they will participate. Also, those who have less autonomy like children, should be treated accordingly.
What are three common methods of measurement outlined in chapter 5? Briefly describe each
Physiological, Observational, Self-report
Physiological - Measuring bodily, often neural, signatures or reactions of a certain behavior
Observational - Watching or observing a particular group of participants and deriving data through an observer
self-report - commonly done through surveys or interviews, self report measures rely on the participant answering a set of questions about his/her own behavior, emotions, etc.
Distinguish between likert scales and semantic-differential scales
Likert scales are anchored by values; the degrees to which you agree or disagree with a statement (typically on a scale between 1 and 5)
Semantic differential scales are anchored by adjectives. To what degree would you rate a professor as "bad" or "good"
What are the differences between a Scientific Publication and a Journalist's article or work
Scientific Publications- Published in scientific journals, use academic and technical language, typically peer reviewed, for consumption by researchers and academics etc.
Describe the following kinds of variables
Measured; Manipulated; Conceptual; Operational
Measured - A variable that is not manipulated, it is observed or measured without influence
Manipulated - Variables that are changed purposively and subsequently measured; a controlled variable
Conceptual - Variables that are not systematically defined; an abstract definition of a construct
Operational - Operational definitions are the "operationalization" of a conceptual variable, figuring a way to systematically measure the variable
Describe the differences between an anonymous study and a confidential one
Anonymous studies do not take identifying information when collecting information
Confidential studies take this identifying information but do not share it with the results of the study or discuss it in the final publication
Which of the three is the most reliable
Trick question, they all have their benefits and downsides. For example, when carrying out many physiological tests, first there must be subjective report of an emotion, observed behavior etc. to find a neurological correlate. (when measuring the activation of visual areas in the brain, you must ask the participant if they see something or not. Physiological and self report)
What are the three question wording errors outlined in the text? Define them briefly. What validity do these errors compromise?
Double barrel questions- Asking two questions disguised as one question
Negative wording - Phrasing questions with a sort of "double negative", characterized by confusing word order or word choice.
Question order errors - The order of questions may change the context of previous or subsequent questions.
These errors can lead to a diminished Construct validity. These questions may not measure what they were intended to measure.
Theory - The broad conception of how variables relate to another
Research Questions - Questions derived from a particular theory you want to test
Research Design - Design of study employed to best test the research questions as effectively as possible
Hypothesis - Initial assumptions of what the data will show
Preregistration - Submitting to file a hypothesis
Data (supporting/non-supporting) The data derived from the research. What happened?
Define Construct validity and give an example of how a conceptual variable may be operationalized
Construct validity refers to how well a conceptual variable is operationalized; how well it is measured.
Stress may be operationalized as cortisol levels found in saliva
Happiness may be operationalized as Subjective Well Being measured by a SWB Inventory or survey.
etc.
What are the two ethical guidelines that the APA added on top of the original three guidelines outlined by the Belmont report? Describe each.
Fidelity and Responsibility - relationships between psychologists and patients, participants, students etc. should be characterized by trust and honestly
Integrity - Psychologists strive to be truthful and honest in their work
What are the three kinds of quantitative variables, define each
Ordinal - numbers have a meaningful inherent order to them (place in a race)
Ratio - Distance between two intervals is coherent. Distance between 1 and 2 is the same as the distance between 2 and 3 etc. Also, a value of zero indicates "nothing' or "true zero" (Item recognition tests where 0 means no objects recognized)
Interval - The same first condition as Ratio, the distance between 1 and 2 is the same as distance between 3 and 4. However, "zero" does not indicate "nothing" no true zero. (IQ tests)
What are the response sets mentioned in the text? What biases may individuals be susceptible to when answering surveys.
Response sets, or nondifferentiation
Acquiescence - putting positive responses for each question
Fence sitting - staying neutral on all responses
Bias
Social desirability - answering questions by taking into account what society, friends, or family may deem reasonable to respond with. Dishonest.
What are the four scientific norms articulated by Merton?
Communality - Research findings are for everyone. The scientific community and the public alike
Universality - Research is judged by its merit, not the individuals credentials or education etc.
Organized Skepticism - The scientific community does not accept things at face value, findings are questioned and retested.
Disinterestedness - An individual or group is not interested necessarily in the exact results of a study because of political, dogmatic, or ideological beliefs
Describe statistical validity
Statistical validity refers to how precisely or reliably the statistical analyses of studies have been conducted. "Do the numbers support the claim"
What does IRB stand for, what is its main responsibility
Institutional review board; to review potential studies and assess them based on the degree to which they maintain the ethical guidelines
What are the three forms of reliability? Describe each.
Test-retest - Across different iterations of a test, results are consistent and measure what they are meant to measure
Interrater - No matter who conducts the test or measures the variable, the same results are found
Internal - The degree to which questions on a survey or inventory measure what they are supposed to. Questions that measure the same thing should correlate highly and questions that measure opposite things should correlate differentially.
Observational studies can pick up the slack that self-reports may be prone to, although it comes with its own problems. Describe Observer bias, observer effects, and reactivity.
Observer Bias - Occurs when observers rate behavior based on their own hypothesis or expectations of a study
Observer effect - also called expectancy, observer effects occur when participants change their behavior to better suit the hypothesis of a study.
Reactivity - occurs when participants change their behavior as a result of being observed, This change in behavior is not necessarily to better suit the goal of the study which separates it from observer effects.
Describe the deficits of experience compared to systematic research
Experience has no comparison group
Experience is confounded
Experience is unbiased etc.
Distinguish between internal and external validity
Also, what are the three criteria for causal claims
External validity refers to how well a finding or study generalizes to the broader population. Remember, "How, now how many"
Internal validity refers to how well third variables have been eliminated as causal for the variable of interest. Make sure Variable B is truly caused by variable B, not C, D, E, F etc.
The three prerequisites to a causal claim are Covariance, Temporal Precedence, and Internal Validity
Describe various forms of research misconduct on the data handling front
Data fabrication is the process by which unethical researchers may completely make up data to show support for or hypothesis
Data falsification is the changing of data to better fir what the researcher wants
What are the three validities outlined in this chapter? give a brief explanation.
Content - A measure must contain all parts of the conceptual variable. In the process of operationalization, nothing should be lost in translation.
Face - The operationalization is subjectively defined as being a good operationalization, it will measure what it is intended to measure
Criteria - Requires data; the degree to which the measurements correlate with the behavior it is supposed to be associated with
Describe ways to fix the following:
Acquiescence, fence sitting, Social desirability observer effects and observer bias.
Acquiescence - Including reverse worded questions, these should be answered opposite to the question it is a reverse of.
Fence sitting - not including neutral options
Social desirability - reassuring participants that the results are anonymous or confidential
Observer Effects and Observer Bias - Creating blind studies where observers do not know to which condition participants have been assigned. Creating clear CODEBOOKS where definitions are stored and objective measures of behavior are iterated. Using multiple observers.