Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, what is the neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, elicits a response?
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Which psychological perspective emphasizes the role of environmental influences on observable behavior
Behavioral perspective
Define the term 'schema' in the context of cognitive psychology
Mental framework that organizes and interprets information(on the lines of)
What is a placebo, and how is it used in psychological research?
A fake treatment or substance with no therapeutic effect; used as a control condition in experiments to test the efficacy of a real treatment.
In vision, what is the term for the adjustable opening that controls the amount of light entering the eye?
Pupil
Provide an example of a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus in a classical conditioning scenario, and explain how they become associated.
Neutral stimulus (NS) could be a bell, and unconditioned stimulus (UCS) could be food. Through repeated pairings, the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) eliciting a conditioned response (CR), such as salivation.
Explain the fundamental difference between the psychodynamic and behavioral perspectives in psychology, focusing on their views on the determinants of behavior.
The psychodynamic perspective emphasizes unconscious drives and childhood experiences, while the behavioral perspective emphasizes observable behaviors shaped by the environment.
Define the term 'cognitive dissonance' and provide an example of how individuals might resolve cognitive dissonance.
Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort caused by holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes. To resolve it, individuals may change their attitudes or seek information to support their existing beliefs.
What is the purpose of a double-blind procedure in experimental research, and how does it help control for biases?
A double-blind procedure is when both participants and researchers are unaware of who is in the experimental or control group. It helps control biases by preventing expectations or knowledge of group assignments from influencing results.
Explain the concept of selective attention in the context of perception, and provide an everyday example
Selective attention is focusing on a specific aspect of the environment while ignoring others. An example is listening to one person in a crowded room while tuning out background conversations.
What is the process of spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning, and how does it occur?
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period. It occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented again after a delay, and the conditioned response re-emerges.
Compare and contrast the humanistic and cognitive perspectives in psychology, highlighting their key concepts and differences.
The humanistic perspective focuses on self-actualization and personal growth, while the cognitive perspective emphasizes mental processes such as thinking and problem-solving. Both perspectives prioritize understanding the individual's experience but differ in their approach.
Describe the process of semantic memory and provide an example of how it operates in everyday life.
Semantic memory involves the storage of general knowledge and facts. An example is recalling the capital of a country, like remembering that Paris is the capital of France.
Explain the concept of random sampling in research. Why is it considered crucial, and what potential biases can it help mitigate?
Random sampling involves selecting a sample from a population in such a way that every individual has an equal chance of being included. It is crucial as it ensures the sample is representative of the entire population. This method helps mitigate biases related to the selection of participants and enhances the generalizability of study findings.
Define the term 'perceptual constancy' in the context of perception. Provide an example to illustrate how perceptual constancy operates.
Perceptual constancy is the ability to perceive objects as having a stable size, shape, and color despite changes in the sensory input. An example is perceiving an object as the same size whether it is near or far.
Discuss the phenomena of stimulus generalization and discrimination in classical conditioning. Provide examples to illustrate each.
Stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. Stimulus discrimination involves responding differently to similar stimuli. An example of generalization is a dog salivating to a bell and a similar sound, while discrimination would be the dog only salivating to the original bell."
Compare the behavioral and cognitive-behavioral perspectives in psychology. Highlight their commonalities and differences in explaining behavior.
The behavioral perspective emphasizes observable behaviors and the influence of the environment, while cognitive-behavioral integrates cognitive processes and thoughts into understanding and modifying behaviors. Both perspectives acknowledge the role of learning in behavior but differ in their emphasis on internal mental processes.
Explain the concept of the misinformation effect in memory. Provide an example and discuss the implications of this phenomenon.
The misinformation effect occurs when exposure to misleading information influences one's memory of an event. An example is leading questions affecting eyewitness testimony. This phenomenon has implications for the reliability of eyewitness accounts and the impact of suggestive information on memory accuracy.
Describe the purpose and advantages of using a double-blind placebo-controlled experiment in clinical trials. What ethical considerations does it address?
A double-blind placebo-controlled experiment involves neither participants nor researchers knowing who receives the treatment or placebo. It minimizes biases and controls for the placebo effect. Ethically, it prevents researchers and participants from influencing the results intentionally or unintentionally, enhancing the study's integrity.
Discuss the concept of perceptual set in perception. How does it influence our interpretation of sensory information, and provide an example.
Perceptual set is a predisposition to perceive stimuli in a particular way. It influences interpretation by shaping expectations and affecting attention. An example is seeing ambiguous stimuli differently based on prior experiences, such as interpreting an inkblot differently depending on one's mindset or cultural background.
Explain the process of higher-order conditioning in classical conditioning. Provide an example to illustrate how it occurs.
Higher-order conditioning involves using a conditioned stimulus (CS) from one conditioning trial as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in a new conditioning trial. This results in a new CS. An example is conditioning a dog to salivate to a light (CS1), then using that light as the UCS to condition the dog to salivate to a bell (CS2).
Compare and contrast the biological and evolutionary perspectives in psychology. How do they explain human behavior and mental processes?
The biological perspective focuses on the role of biology, genetics, and the nervous system in behavior. The evolutionary perspective emphasizes the adaptive function of behaviors and mental processes over generations. Both perspectives acknowledge the influence of biology but differ in their emphasis on immediate mechanisms (biological) and the survival advantages of traits (evolutionary).
Discuss the role of working memory in cognitive processes. How does it differ from long-term memory, and provide examples of tasks that heavily rely on working memory.
Working memory is responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information for cognitive tasks. Unlike long-term memory, it has limited capacity and duration. Examples of tasks relying on working memory include mental arithmetic, problem-solving, and comprehension of complex sentences.
Explain the concept of demand characteristics in psychological research. How can researchers minimize their impact on study outcomes?
Demand characteristics are cues in a study that convey the expected response. To minimize their impact, researchers can use double-blind procedures, disguise the true purpose of the study, and employ deceptive practices to prevent participants from guessing the hypothesis or altering their behavior accordingly.
Discuss the concept of top-down processing in perception. How does it influence our interpretation of sensory information, and provide an example.
Top-down processing involves using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information. It influences perception by guiding attention and shaping interpretations. An example is hearing a muffled sound and using context (e.g., recognizing the location) to interpret it as distant music rather than background noise.