Atomic Physics & Engineering
The atomic number of an element represents this amount of subatomic particles within the nucleus.
Protons
Explain what type of nuclear burst results in more radioactive fallout and why. What is radioactive fallout?
Radioactive fallout is any material that is radioactive in the aftermath of a nuclear explosion - at minimum this is the irradiated atoms of the nuclear bomb and fuel itself, but if detonated on the ground, dirt, dust, pieces of buildings, etc., can be irradiated, making surface bursts causing far more radioactive fallout than aerial bursts.
Provide three historical examples of arms races. What are arms races?
Arms races are competitions between states to build greater or more security elements.
Examples like the dreadnought arms race between Britain and Germany prior to WWI.
Nuclear arms races between the US and USSR in the Cold War, or India and Pakistan.
Perhaps an AI arms race in the near future?
List the five states that are not party to the NPT.
Israel, Pakistan, India, North Korea, South Sudan
This organization is empowered by the NPT to conduct inspections to ensure compliance with peaceful energy standards of the treaty.
The International Atomic Energy Agency - it reports to both the UNGA and the UNSC
Discuss the status of earthly Uranium - what are the rough quantities of each Uranium isotope. Which isotopes are fissile? What explains the distribution of these quantities?
U-238 ~99.3%, not fissile
U-235 ~0.7%, fissile
U-234 ~far less than 0.01%, not fissile
Widely different half-lives (billions vs millions vs hundreds of thousands of years) explain the quantities.
Discuss the devastation that occurs, depending on the range to ground zero, from a nuclear blast. In other words, what are the many hazards that accompany the weapon?
Vaporization in immediate proximity. Fire. Pressure Waves. Burns from heat. Radioactive fallout. Electromagnetic Pulse
Brute force is pain - complete destruction and conquest.
Coercive force is the threat of pain - some destruction and conquest implying the ability to impose these further.
Nuclear weapons are debatably both - brute in the application but coercive in their messaging.
Give three examples of bilateral nuclear treaties between the US and the USSR/Russia.
Examples abound, such as the ABM, TTBT, SALT I, SALT II, INF, START I, START II, SORT, New START
Nuclear fusion is a difficult process - stars are far better at this than anything humanity can do.
What isotopes do we fuse in nuclear weapons, and potentially in fusion energy in the future? How many neutrons do these have and what element are they?
Deuterium and Tritium - one and two neutrons in hydrogen atoms, respectively.
List the four fundamental forces from weakest to strongest. For each, provide a definition. Which are most relevant to nuclear technology?
Gravity - the attraction of mass relative to distance
Weak Nuclear Force - the driver of radioactive decay; very relevant to nuclear technology
Electromagnetism - the interaction of charged particles via electromagnetic fields
Strong Nuclear Force - the glue that binds nuclei together; very relevant to nuclear technology
Explain what happens to living organisms when exposed to high levels of radiation. How does radiation damage life? What are some symptoms that might result?
Radiation is damaging when it is ionizing (when it is high enough energy to displace electrons).
Radiation can directly damage DNA, potentially mutating it, or radiation can destroy water molecules, which is potentially harmful for water-based organisms (like us).
Symptoms vary by exposure; nausea, fatigue, to long-term greater risks of leukemia, cancer, congenital issues; massive immediate exposure can kill cells, disrupt blood creation, cause infertility or death
Explain the nuclear stability-instability paradox. What did Rauchhaus (2009) find in studying this phenomenon? Provide an example of this in the real world.
The stability-instability paradox is the notion that while nuclear weapons discourage total war, they increase lower-scale conflicts.
Rauchhaus found support for the idea that nuclear weapons discourage total war, but actually increase lower-scale conflicts.
The most common example is between India and Pakistan - whilst neither state has resorted to nuclear warfare, the conflict between the two has nonetheless persisted.
Which four states used to have nuclear weapons? Why did each of these states give them up?
Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine gave them up in diplomatic agreements after the Cold War. In part these agreements were meant to guarantee territorial security.
South Africa gave them up due to international backlash against apartheid, international conflict (Angola) was lessening due to the USSR's collapse, and apartheid itself was being dismantled domestically
What is the nuclear triad? Explain each component of the relationship.
The nuclear triad represents strategic nuclear weapons in the US arsenal. These are focused on deterrence via MAD.
The triad consists of ICBMs, SLBMs, and Strategic Bombers
Walk through the steps of the Uranium cycle, give a brief explanation of each step.
Recovery - usually mining, conversion into uranium oxide (yellowcake)
Conversion - yellowcake converted into uranium hexaflouride
Enrichment - separating quantities of U-238 and U-235, usually via centrifuges
Fabrication - concentrated into usable uranium pellets
Fuel - use within a reactor or weapon
Recycling/Disposal - back into conversion or (usually) buried
Give examples of four major nuclear disasters - explain what caused them, and their impacts upon affected peoples.
Examples abound - see Week 4.
Kyshtym, Fukishima, Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, etc.
Define the Rationalist causes of war and provide examples of each today.
The Problem of Asymmetric Information - liars; misrepresentations; misinterpretations
The Problem of Credible Commitments - lack of trust; lack of an ability to make future commitments
The Problem of Indivisible Issues - fighting over something that cannot/will not be divided or shared
Examples abound
Explain the Iran nuclear debate - why is this so controversial?
Iran is party to the NPT, meaning it is entitled to peaceful nuclear energy. But Iran has also threatened to enrich uranium to weapons-grade levels. At times, Iran has not complied with the NPT by refusing or limited IAEA inspector access to nuclear sites. Additionally, Iran has continued to support non-state actor groups across the Middle East with funding, personnel or training - which is contrary to international law. Iran's human rights violations and hostile rhetoric make trusting them with peaceful nuclear technology difficult.
Discuss the necessary components needed to construct a nuclear weapon - what types of things are needed?
Some type of fuel - most often U-235 or Pu-239;
a weapons design - gun-type, implosive-lens, fusion;
a delivery system - a missile/warhead, a bomb;
a construction complex - the location and associated personnel, such as scientists and engineers;
a testing site - a location to ensure the bomb works, usually underground
Discuss the four types of radiation we have covered. Name them. Explain what these emissions physically are. Remind us of the danger posed to organic life by each.
Alpha (positively charged helium particles) - generally not dangerous unless ingested or striking thin tissues.
Beta (free-floating electrons [plus some quantum stuff]) - more penetrative and dangerous than alpha particles.
Electromagnetic (light waves, visible or otherwise) - depending upon the energy, these can be highly volatile; dangerous electromagnetic radiation comes in the form of high energy x-rays and gamma-rays (y-rays).
Neutron (free-floating neutrons) - can be natural or artificially induced via neutron bombardment; neutron radiation is highly harmful and is irradiative through neutron activation. Neutron radiation is used to power critical chain-reactions in fission, both energy and weapons.
Explain the Cuban Missile Crisis. The context in which this took place, the threats experienced by both the US and the USSR, and the attempts at negotiation to solve this dilemma. Discuss the B-59 incident, and explain how close the world was to nuclear war.
After the US deployed nuclear weapons in Turkey and Italy, the USSR sought to mirror this act. Cuba, who had resisted an attempted coup by guerilla forces trained by the CIA, sought Soviet security and agreed to house nuclear missiles for Khrushchev.
Upon discovering these missiles, Kennedy, and the US administration, largely panicked; a quarantine (blockade) was implemented, as the US prepared for a ground invasion.
A Soviet nuclear sub, a B-59, did not hear from Moscow for several days, and after misinterpreting a US vessel's signals for it to surface, nearly fired its payload at the US, if not for Vasily Arkhipov refusing to authorize the launch.
The crisis was solved by mutual diplomacy, wherein the US quietly withdrew its missiles from Turkey, and the USSR withdrew its missiles from Cuba.
The world came closer than ever before to nuclear war.
Explain three major theories of understanding nuclear bargaining. In other words, how can we explain the outcomes of nuclear bargaining?
Nuclear bargaining explained by:
Political maneuvering - whomever is better at politics wins because MAD cancels the effects of nuclear weapons out.
Nuclear superiority - whomever has the better/greater arsenal of nuclear weapons wins because of the threat associated with asymmetry.
Brinkmanship - whomever is more willing to push the boundary, who has a greater level of resolve wins because the interaction is a context of psychological wills and risk-acceptance.
Explain what the Nuclear Non-Proliferation actually does. What are its pillars? How compliant are states with this treaty?
The NPT divides member states into NWS or NNWS. The only legitimate NWS are the original five (USSR/Russia) actors that held weapons in the 1968 signing.
The NPT prohibits NNWS from acquiring or pursuing nuclear weapons (Pillar I); it prohibits NWS from helping them, the Nuclear Suppliers Group aims to limit this transfer of nuclear equipment
The NPT encourages the exchange of nuclear technology as it relates to peaceful energy (Pillar II) – the IAEA actively monitors NNWS nuclear programs (dual-use engineering)
The NPT calls for disarmament of NWS "in good faith" (Pillar III) - most of this burden lay upon the US/Russia given stockpile sizes
Generally, states do a good job following the NPT - though the disarmament component is least respected in part due to the vague language and indefinite duration of the NPT
Discuss four theories of nuclear proliferation - one supply-sided explanation, and three demand-sided explanations.
Supply model - proliferation is explained by the (lack of) availability of nuclear materials; greater accessibility means greater temptation to proliferate
Demand:
Security - proliferation is explained by threats; a state will pursue nuclear weapons if it expects these weapons to benefit its security more than non-proliferation would
Bureaucracy - proliferation is explained by domestic groups' desires; the military, interest groups, public opinion pushing a state to acquire the bomb
Psychological - proliferation is explained by individual leadership; their internal calculus arrives at the outcome that nuclear weapons are worth it - perhaps related to risk-acceptance or fear