Neurotransmission and synapses
What determines the function of a neurotransmitter?
The receptor it binds to
What type of learning pairs a neutral stimulus with a reward?
Classical conditioning
What system activates during acute stress?
Sympathetic nervous system
What is the brain’s reward pathway called?
Mesolimbic pathway
What brain region regulates hunger and homeostasis?
Hypothalamus
What ion flows through NMDA receptors during LTP?
Calcium (Ca²⁺)
What type of learning links behavior to reward?
Operant conditioning
What hormone(s) are released during stress?
Cortisol (and epinephrine)
Where does dopamine originate in the mesolimbic pathway?
VTA
What sleep stage has muscle paralysis?
REM
What synaptic change strengthens transmission in LTP?
Insertion of AMPA receptors
Where are memories stored?
Synapses between neurons
Why does cortisol affect many systems?
Receptors are widespread
What are three things that can trigger relapse?
Drugs, cues, stress
What does EEG measure?
Summed cortical activity
Name one structural change during LTP.
Increased spine size / protein synthesis
What happens after hippocampal damage?
Impaired declarative and spatial memory
Explain how the same chemical signal could function as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone, and what determines its role in each context.
The function depends on how and where it is released. If released into a synapse, it acts as a neurotransmitter with fast, localized effects. If released into the bloodstream, it acts as a hormone with slower, widespread effects. The mode of delivery and receptor context determine its function.
How does ketamine affect NMDA receptors?
Noncompetitive antagonist
Where would you measure NE during attention?
Prefrontal cortex
Explain how NMDA receptor activation enables synapse-specific strengthening during simultaneous neuronal activity.
NMDA receptors require both presynaptic glutamate release and postsynaptic depolarization. When both occur, Ca²⁺ enters the cell, triggering signaling pathways that strengthen that specific synapse.
In fear conditioning, what triggers freezing after learning?
The conditioned stimulus (tone)
Which hormone increases hunger?
Ghrelin
How does LSD affect 5-HT2A receptors?
Agonist (activates receptor)
What neurons promote wakefulness in optogenetics experiments?
Hypocretin neurons (lateral hypothalamus)