TOPICS 2.1 and 2.2 (Function and Structure)
All living cells contain a ___ (all the genetic components, contained in the DNA/RNA) and a ____. Which is necessary to store and pass along information needed for the continuity of life. This provides evidence for common ______.
What is genome, ribosome, ancestry.
*remember both prokaryotic and Eukaryotic organisms contain ribosomes and some type of genome (DNA/RNA) for information transportation.
As an organism increases in size, it's ability to dissipate ___ decreases. (Lower SA:V). Instead their must be other adaptations in place for the animal to be successful.
What is heat.
(you mamas bc you so fine, gyat dyum)
By using compartmentalization, a cell is able to carry out numerous different metabolic reactions and cell functions at the same time, increasing efficiently. If compartmentalization were to breakdown (organelle membrane destroyed) cell function would decrease.
SOoOOOoOOo, What are the compartmentalization (structural) advantages used by the Mitochondria to increase it's ability for energy production? ( think about SA)
What are the compartmentalization (structural) advantages of the chloroplast which increase it's abiliy to perform? (think about SA).
MITOCONDRIA: The infoldings (cristae) of the membrane serve to increase SA. The inner membrane more efficient at electron transport and the production of ATP due to it's high SA.
CHLOROPLAST: The thylakoids are highly folded membranes which increase SA, allowing for an increased efficiency for the light dependent reactions in photosynthesis.
Replicated chromosomes consist of _____ chromatids joined together at the center by a ______.
Humans have __ chromosomes, and after the S phase the replication number of sister chromatids is __.
what is sister chromatid and centromere.
What is 46 and 92.
Disruptions to a cell cycle may result in cancer, and/or programmed cell death called_____.
Qu'est-ce que si APOPTOSIS!
What is the function of ribosomes?
*Extra points if you can explain how*
What is synthesizing proteins. Done according to the messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence, which received the genetic information from a code from the genome (DNA) of the cell. Using tRNA lets grab some fun amino acids with the anticodon to the mRNA and start building that protein!
FORMULAS:
SA= 6s2 (s is the length of one side)
V= s3 (s is the length of one side)
Cell #1 (cube) has an s length of 2cm (one side). What is the surface area to volume ratio?
Cell #2 (cube) has an s length of 1cm (one side). What is the surface area o volume ratio?
Which one is more efficient at exchanging material with the outside environment?
Cell #1:
Sa= 24m2 V= 8cm2
SA:V= 3:1
Cell #2:
Sa= 6cm2 V= 1cm2
SA:V = 6:1
Cell #2 is more slay
What are the Compartmentalization (structural) advantages of the Lysosome that increase it's ability to perform the desired function?
Compartmentalization is derived from it's membrane which allows for the internal acidic conditions to not pass into the cell. It's maintained low pH increases hydrolysis (breaking down) of molecules using enzymes within it. merp
What are the stages of Interphase? Include G0
Does the cell cycle consist mostly of Miotic division, Interphase or closely the same amount of each?
G1: Cell increases in size, carrying on normal cell functions.
S(Synthesis): amount of DNA is doubled in the process of replication.
G2: Growth stage and extra organelles are produced in preparation for cellular division.
G0: the cell is no longer dividing. It may enter the cycle again or be held in that stage forever.
The cell cycle consists mostly of interphase.
What are the main four reasons why cells divide? Explain!
1. Cells growth creates a SA:V imbalance. The volume becomes too large to be sustained by the limited SA, dependent functions such as passive diffusion cannot supply all the needs of the cells quick enough.
2. DNA:V Ratio imbalance: There is too much volume for the DNA to control, division must occur to sustain a manageable level. cytoplasm needs more protein, therefore needing more DNA.
3. Chemical signals: chemicals growth factors are released that cause the rate of cellular division to increase. Other cells will stop dividing if there is not enough nutrients are space to do so, called DENSITY DEPENDENT GROWTH (opposite of cancer cells as they produce tumors when they reproduce past these limits).
4. Checkpoints: Different stages of the cell cycle are regulated by6 internal controls (checkpoints/ restrictions) that allow the cell to continue through the cell cycle.
G2 checkpoint- DNA Replication check and DNA damage check.
M-spindle check- fiber attachment to chromosome check.
What is the difference between the Rough Endoplasmic reticulum and the Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum?
What is the appearance of both?
Rough ER: membrane bound interconnected tubes with ribosomes attached to it's membrane. It functions to package protein, synthesizing them for later export out of the cell.
Smooth ER: membrane bound interconnected tubes without ribosomes attached. Functions to synthesize lipids and detoxification.
*both SER and RER transport the newly made proteins and lipids throughout the cell, providing mechanical support for the cell.*
Membrane folding increases surface area, which allows for more exchange. What is example of a specialized membrane folding method?
What are Root hairs and Villi (if you were being a little bit cheeky you might even mention micro milli, heh)
ROOT HAIRS- increase SA allowing for increased nutrient and water uptake from he roots of plants.
VILLI: Lining of the small intestine is highly folded to increase surface area for the absorption of food. Projections of the interior of the SI are extended by microvilli.
All cells have a ____ ________ that allows for the maintenance of an internal environment apart form it's surroundings. Prokaryotic cells do not have m_____ b_____ o_____. Their genetic information is carried in a nucleotide region. Eukaryotic cells do have m______ b____ o________, that help to compartmentalize the cells functions. Genetic information is stored in the membrane bound ____ for Eukaryotic cells,
What are the stages of mitosis? Give at least a brief explanation of what happens in each.
PROPHASE: Nuclear membrane disappears, nucleoli disappears, chromosomes thicken and shorten (Visible), Centrioles begin to move tot he opposite poles and spindle fibers (microtubules) form.
METAPHASE: Pulled by spindle fibers, replicated chromosomes move to the equator of the cell
ANAPHASE: Sister chromatids separate as the centromeres split. Each chromatid is now a chromosome. These chromosomes are pulled to the poles of the cell by spindle fibers.
TELOPHASE: Nuclear membrane reappears, chromosomes lengthen and become less condensed (chromatin), centrioles move away from the poles, spindle fibers break down, cytokinesis occurs (division the the cytoplasm) and cleavage furrows occur in animal cells or the plant plate forms in plants.
The cyclin dependent Kinases (CDKs) are groups of enzymes which bind to their specific cyclin, resulting in their activation. These enzymes are involved in the promotion in the cell cycle. Once activated they promote the _______ of substrate. What is that?
What is phosphorylation.
Substrate level phosphorylation is the process of directly removing a phosphate group off of a substrate and attaching onto an ADP to produce an ATP.
What is the function of the Golgi Complex, Lysosome and Chloroplast?
*describe the structure*
Golgi: flat disc-like membrane bound SACS. Function to correctly fold and modify newly formed proteins, then packaging them for later transport around or out of the cell.
Lysosome: Membrane bound SACS containing the hydrolytic enzyme. Functions to breakdown dead or damaged cell parts and macromolecules.
Chloroplast: Double membrane bound organelle with inside disc SACS called thylakoids, arrangements called grana. Open space around is the Stroma. Specialized to perform photosynthesis (produces sugars).
What are the three limitations to why cells must be small?
*extra points if you can explain what each thins is briefly*
What is:
Diffusion-fast over a small area, slow and inefficient over large areas. solute moving from High to low concentration.
DNA limits cell size- Limits of how fast DNA can make proteins needed for the cell to function. It is unsustainable to be FAT.
SA:V Ratio- smaller cells have a larger SA:V, which makes them more efficient at exchanging, materials in its environment. impacts the ability to expel waste, obtain resources and exchange chemicals and energy with the environment.
I'm gonna touch you
Some membrane bound organelles such as the nucleus and the endoplasmic reticulum are believed to be formed from an evolution of?
What is the infolding of the plasma membrane.
Cells are bound to die. YOUR cells will die, meaning YOU will eventually die. Although WE don't know when that is, there seems to be smt called a "biological clock" that ticks away the number of divisions the cell can perform. Each cellular division results in the loss of a bit off the end of the chromosome called the ______. The enzyme _____ functions to rebuild the lost ends of the chromosome.
Explain how Cell death occurs in terms of the loss of the non coding ends of chromosomes.
What is telomere and telomerase.
Cell death occurs when the cellular division of the chromosome have resulted in the loss of the non coding telomers along with the loss of important DNA. this makes the cell incapable of producing more viable cells, causing cell die die.
Control of the cell cycle is maintained by the interactions between the ____ (c) and the ___(c)-dependent ____. The (c) are a group of proteins tha5 are associated with specific phases of the cell cycle. The concentration of each can fluctuate depending of cellular activity. Production _____(increase/decrease) promotes the progression of the cell cycle and a production ____(increase/decrease) inhibits the progression through the cell cycle.
What are Cyclins and Cyclin dependent Kinases.
Increase, decrease.
What is the Function of the vacuole, Vesicle and Mitochondria?
Vacuoles: Membrane bound SAC. Functions to contain water (most common) and other macromolecules (less common). It can release contents back into the cell if the cell requires so. *The swelling of the vacuole in plants helps increase turgor pressure, aiding rigidity*
Vesicle: Membrane bound containers for transporting materials around the cell and out.
Mitochondria: POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL. double membraned, inner folds called cristae. Functions to perform cellular respiration ( breaking down sugar into usable energy in the form of ATP)
Organisms have evolved greatly to increase the efficiency of obtaining nutrients and expelling waste. These specialized exchange surfaces are used to obtain and release molecules into or from the environment surrounding.
Plants contain a ____ opening that allows for the diffusion of ___ and ___ out of the leaf and ___ into the leaf.
What is the stoma, CO2, H2O, O2
Membrane bound organelles such at the Mitochondria and Chloroplast are believed to be evolved from a process called __________. Also known as the _______ theory.
explain briefly what that means?
*Extra points if you can list the tree pieces of evidence supporting the theory in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts*
What is endosymbiosis and Endosymbiotic
In a nutshell, endosymbiosis is the process of two independently functioning bacteria, where one engulfs the other (endocytosis) and the two bacterium coexist together.
Evidence supporting: Double membrane , own unique circular DNA and their own ribosomes.
What is Cancer? Do Cancer cells loose their telomers?
BONUS:
_________ cells have the ability to become anything.
Cancer in unchecked cellular division that occurs too quickly for the cell to produce viable cells, as the requirements for division are bypassed and unmet. This results in poorly formed cell that takes up space and nutrients needed by the actual healthy cells . They cannot perform functional work.
Cancer cells no not loose their telomeres, they can divide forever (if they have nutrients) as their telomerase enzyme is active.
*Totipotent*
As the cell progresses through the stages of the cell cycle, the accumulation of cyclin increases. This may reach a point where it can bind to the CDK, producing a MPF. What does MPF stand for? 🤔💭
What is Miotic Promoting Factor. 😍