Chapter 1
Describe the Mental processes, Critical thinking, The Empirical method and Introspection
Mental processes- The thoughts, feelings, and motives that people experience privately but that cannot be observed directly.
Critical thinking- The process of thinking deeply and actively, asking questions, and evaluating the evidence.
Empirical method- Gaining knowledge through the observation of events, the collection of data, and logical reasoning.
Introspection- The process of thinking and reporting on the conscious experience
What is learning? Identify the two main types of learning? What is required for each? Name at least three factors that influence learning.
Learning- A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience
Associative learning- Learning that occurs when an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events. (Requires: a correlation between two events to be established)
Observational learning- Learning that occurs through observing and imitating another’s behavior. (Requires: Attention, Retention, Motor reproduction and Reinforcement/incentive conditions)
Influences- Biological, cultural, and psychological factors can influence learning as well as conative influences like expectation and insight
Define memory, name its three steps and identify what they rely on.
Memory- The retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding- The first step in memory; the process by which information gets into memory storage. (Relies on attention)
Storage- The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory. (Relies on rehearsal)
Retrieval- The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage.(Relies on cues)
1.________-how information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing.
2.________-The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively.
3.________- mental representations, usually organized into categories
1. Cognition
2. Thinking
3.Knowledge
By what age does every healthy person have a language?
age 4
In an experiment, researcher are trying to determine how long it takes water to boil when sitting on stove tops of various degrees? What are the Independent and dependent variables? is there a correlation? if so, what kind?
IV= temperatures
DV= how long takes to boil
There is a negative correlation (as the temperature goes up, the time it takes to boil decreases)
Define reinforcement and punishment. Explain positive/negative reinforcement/ punishment. (Use examples)
Reinforcement- The process by which a stimulus or an event (a reinforcer) following a particular behavior increases the probability that the behavior will happen again.
Positive reinforcement(++)- The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.
Negative reinforcement(-+)- The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior.
Punishment- A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur.
Positive punishment(+-)- The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.
Negative punishment(--)- The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior.
Explain Interference Theory and it's 3 kinds of interference.
Interference theory- The theory that people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember.
Proactive interference- Situation in which material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later.
Retroactive interference- Situation in which material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier.
Decay theory- Theory stating that when an individual learns something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting.
What is problem solving, its 4 steps and 3 techniques?
Problem solving- The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.
Steps: Find and frame the problem, Develop good problem-solving strategies, Evaluate solutions, Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time.
Techniques: Trial and error, Algorithms (Strategies—including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions, guarantees a solution), and Heuristics (Shortcut strategies or guidelines, do not guarantee an answer.)
What are normal distribution and culture-fair-tests? What role did they play in the creation of intelligence tests?
Normal distribution- A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of test scores (or other data) falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores (or other data points) appearing toward the extremes.
Culture-fair tests- Intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased.
Early intelligence tests were not culturally-fair, leading them to be less reliable.
Describe the 4 early forms of psychology, who were the three most relevant "founders"? (Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt psychology, Freudian Psychology)
Structuralism- William Wundt’s approach to discovering the basic elements, or structures, of mental processes.
Functionalism- William James’s approach to mental processes, emphasizing the functions and purposes of the mind and behavior in the individual’s adaptation to the environment.
Gestalt psychology- Countered structuralism, believed that researchers need to consider the whole person, not just a sum of parts
Freudian Psychology- argues that introspection is impossible because motives are unconscious and repressed
Define and use examples to explain conditioning, classic conditioning and operant conditioning. Identify the differences between the two types.
Conditioning- The process by which associative learning occurs.
Classical conditioning- Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.
EX: Pavlov's dogs salivated at food, once they associated the sound of a bell with food, they started to salivate at the sound.
Operant conditioning- A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior’s occurrence.
EX: A rat receives food every time it pulls a lever, this leads to the rat pulling the lever more often
In classical conditioning, organisms learn the association between two stimuli. In operant conditioning, they learn the association between behavior and a consequence.
Describe working memory (short term memory) and its three components.
Short-term / working memory- Limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer.Usually the limit is in the range of 7 ± 2 items
1. The central executive- integrates information from the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad and long-term memory. Plays important roles in attention, planning, and organizing. Monitors what info deserves our attention/ what we should ignore.
2. The phonological loop- Briefly stores speech-based info. about the sounds of language, contains two separate components: an acoustic code and rehearsal.
3. The visuo-spatial sketchpad- stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery.
What is infinite generativity, and what are the five rules it comes from.
Infinite generativity- The ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences.
1. Phonology- A language’s sound system.
2. Morphology- A language’s rules for word formation.
3. Syntax- A language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences.
4. Semantics- The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language.
5. Pragmatics- The useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized.
How do elements like informed consent, debriefing, confidentiality and deception play a role in research?
In order for research to be ethical, the experimenter must fully explain the procedure and risks associated with the treatment (informed consent), keep all identifying info private (confidentiality) and explain the methods used and over all result at the end of the experiment (debriefing). Deception is only used when the participants knowledge could taint results, but it should be revealed at the end of the study.
Describe the 3 main types of experiments, explain their uses and build some examples.
Correlational research- Research that examines the relationships between variables, whose purpose is to examine whether and how two variables change together.
Would describe how much variables change together, but no causal conclusions can be made
Descriptive Research- describing a phenomenon. Determining its basic dimensions, defining what it is, how often it occurs ect..
Findings would lay groundwork for future research by establishing the types of questions that should be asked.
Does not detail the process involved or generalized conclusions
Uses case studies, surveys and interviews
Experimental Research- determine if a casual relationship exists between variables
This research does allow for causal conclusions but external validity should still be tested.
Describe the 3 types of reinforcement (Continuous, Partial and Scheduled), as well as the 4 types of scheduled reinforcement (Fixed-ratio schedule, Variable-ratio schedule, variable-interval schedule, Fixed-interval schedule).
Continuous reinforcement- in which a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
Partial reinforcement- in which a reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time.
Schedules of reinforcement- Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
Fixed-ratio schedule- reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
Variable-ratio schedule- a system in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis.
Variable-interval schedule - a timetable in which a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed.
Fixed-interval schedule- reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed.
Define Sensory memory and it's components.
Sensory memory- A memory system that involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant, not much longer than the brief time it is exposed to the visual, auditory, and other senses.
Echoic memory- (from the word echo) refers to auditory sensory memory, which is retained for up to several seconds.
Iconic memory- (from the word icon, which means “image”) refers to visual sensory memory, which is retained only for about 0.25 second
How is intelligence defined?, what is it's dynamic? How can it be tested and what two things need to considered when determining the accuracy of the test?
Intelligence- all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience.
Intelligence is stable, but not fixed. problem solving declines with age, learned knowledge generally stays.
The most common modern tests are the IQ test (compares mental age to chronological age), and Wechsler adult intelligence scale, (includes verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.)
Validity (how well it measures what its supposed to) and Reliability (how consistent it is) both need to be considered when looking at the accuracy of the test
What are some factors that can influence decision making?
1. the number # of options- The Jam study ex showed that people were as likely to sample equal amounts of jam, but the group exposed to fewer options was much more likely to actually buy jam.
2. Context - EX: Anchoring/ framing effect- the exact same item sold at different stores, one was $350 but is on sale for $200, while the other was $225 and is now on sale for $175, which is the better deal?
3. Myth of optimal choice- France vs US end of life care policy, people are more unhappy with decisions when they believe there is one good/best choice
4. Information effects- Inability to ignore irrelevant info
Define these 6 elements of experiments and explain their uses/ affects: Demand characteristics, Experimenter bias, Placebo effect, Double-blind experiment, Third variable problem and Longitudinal design
Demand characteristics- Any aspects of a study that communicate to the participants how the experimenter wants them to behave.
Experimenter bias- The influence of the experimenter’s expectations on the outcome of research.
Placebo effect- The situation where participants’ expectations, rather than the experimental treatment, produce an experimental outcome.
Double-blind experiment- An experimental design in which neither the experimenter nor the participants are aware of which participants are in the experimental group and which are in the control group until the results are calculated.
Third variable problem- The circumstance where a variable that has not been measured accounts for the relationship between two other variables. Third variables are also known as confounds.
Longitudinal design- A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time.
Come up with an experiment that uses either Classic or Operative conditioning, explain the type of stimuli used (unconditioned, conditioned or neutral) , the type of reinforcement or punishment (positive/negative), and the type of incentive (primary/secondary) for bonus points: include an example of generalization, extinction or discrimination.
varies
organize and explain Long term memory systems. (a blank diagram would look like this:)
_Long_term_memory_systems_
1_______ 2_______
a___ b___ a__ b__ c__
1. Explicit memory (or declarative memory)- The conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts or events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated.
1a. Episodic Memory- The retention of information about the where, when, and what of life’s happenings—that is, how individuals remember life’s episodes. (events, episodes, time, focused more on emotion, deliberate/ effortful retrieval, education/intelligence are irrelevant)
1b. Semantic Memory- A person’s knowledge about the world. (facts, ideas, concept, less focused on emotion, automatic retrieval, relies on education/intelligence)
2. Implicit memory (or nondeclarative memory)- Memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience.
2a. Procedural memory- Memory for skills.is a type of implicit memory process that involves memory for skills.
2b. Priming- The activation of information that people already have in storage to help them remember new information better and faster.
3b. Classical conditioning- involves the automatic learning of associations between stimuli, so that one stimulus comes to evoke the same response as the other.
Name and explain at least 3 of the 6 problem solving bias/heuristics. Use an example for at least 1
Loss Aversion-Tendency to weigh potential losses more heavily than potential gains
EX: An investor decides not to buy stock in a new company even though the chances of financial gain outweigh the chances of financial loss
Confirmation Bias- Tendency to search for and use information that supports rather than refutes one’s ideas
EX: A politician accepts news that supports his views and dismisses evidence that runs counter to these views
Base Rate Neglect- Tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information
EX: You read a favorable expert report on a television you are intending to buy, but you decide not to buy it when a friend tells you about a bad experience with that model
Hindsight Bias- Tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one accurately predicted an outcome
EX: You read about the results of a particular psychological study and say, “I always knew that,” though in fact you have little knowledge about the issues examined in the study
Representativeness Heuristic- Tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or one’s stereotype of a group rather than available base rate information
EX: The victim of a holdup, you view police photos of possible perpetrators. The suspects look very similar to you, but you choose the individual whose hair and clothing look dirtiest and most disheveled
Availability Heuristic- Prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events
EX: A teen from family in which no one has ever attended college wants to be a doctor. The parents cannot imagine their child in such a career and suggest becoming a home healthcare aide.
Explain the three levels of processing (try to use examples)
Shallow processing-Physical and perceptual features are analyzed. (EX. The lines, angles, and contour that make up the physical appearance of an object, such as a car, are detected.)
Intermediate processing- Stimulus is recognized and labeled.(EX The object is recognized as a car.)
Deep processing- Semantic, meaningful, symbolic characteristics are used.(EX Associations connected with cars are brought to mind—you think about the model you dream of buying)