What is a Mental Health Disorder & How Is It Diagnosed
What are the four D's?
Deviance, Distress, Dysfunction, Danger.
Name two diagnostic systems.
DSM-5 and ICD-11.
What does the diathesis–stress model say?
Biological vulnerability + environmental stress → mental disorder.
What are the three components of Beck’s Negative Cognitive Triad?
Negative views of self, world, and future.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.
DSM-5 criteria for depression?
At least 5 of 9 symptoms for 2 weeks or more.
Why might someone report stomachache as a symptom of depression?
Cultural tendency toward somatic expression of emotional distress.
Name one environmental risk factor.
War, pollution, chronic stress, low social support.
Explain System 1 and System 2
System 1 = fast automatic thinking
System 2 =Slow logical thinking
What did Drysdale et al. find?
4 brain-based subtypes of depression
Difference between dysfunction and statistical deviation?
Because dysfunction focuses on impact on daily life, not how rare a behaviour is.
2 factors that may affect prevalence
Lower access → fewer diagnoses → lower reported prevalence.
People hide symptoms → underdiagnosis, especially in cultures discouraging emotional expression.
Why can collectivism protect against depression?
Strong group support reduces stress → buffers genetic vulnerability, even with short 5-HTT allele.
What is meant by "Heuristic"?
Mental shortcuts that people use to make decisions quickly and efficiently
Why is “low serotonin” outdated?
SSRIs are no better than placebos; some drugs reduce serotonin but still improve mood.
Tianeptine
What it does:
It reduces serotonin levels
Yet it improves depressive symptoms
What did Rosenhan’s study show about diagnostic labels?
Labels cause confirmation bias — normal behaviour was interpreted as pathological.
How can DSM create cultural bias?
They are Western-developed, so they may misinterpret culturally normal behaviours as symptoms.
What is gene–culture coevolution?
Genes and culture evolve together; cultural practices influence gene expression over generations.
If a study finds that “heavy social media use is associated with higher depression,” Does it mean that it is the cause of depression?
No because it’s a correlational finding, and correlation doesn’t establish causation.
What did Caspi et al. (2003) show?
Short 5-HTT gene + stressful events → highest depression risk.
Define validity, reliability, utility.
Validity: Diagnosis reflects the true condition.
Reliability: Clinicians consistently reach the same diagnosis.
Utility: Diagnosis is useful for treatment even if imperfect.
What are the 4 subtypes of depression according to research?
Anhedonic + Anxious
Mostly Anhedonic
Mostly Anxious
Neither Anhedonic nor Anxious
Explain the neural networks relevant to depression and their function
Default Mode Network (DMN) Active when the mind is at rest — involved in self-reflection and daydreaming.
Salience Network (SN) Detects and filters important emotional or sensory events (e.g., fear, threat, pain).
Central Executive Network (CEN) Handles rational thinking, attention, and problem-solving (in the
prefrontal cortex).
Name two neural networks + dysfunction in depressed Individuals
Default Mode Network(DMN)Becomes overactive in depression.
Salience Network (SN) Becomes oversensitive to negative stimuli.
Central Executive Network (CEN) Becomes underactive or disconnected from the other networks
Why do twin studies show environment matters?
Identical twins share all genes but often do not both develop the disorder → environment shapes outcomes.