The Nature and Development of Science
What is science?
Systematic production of knowledge
Who wrote The New Organon?
Francis Bacon
Who introduced the concept of falsifiability?
Karl Popper
What are the three types of scientific rationality identified by Vladimir Stepin?
Classical, non-classical, post-non-classical
What are the two main levels of scientific knowledge?
Empirical and theoretical
What is the main difference between scientific knowledge and everyday knowledge?
Evidence-based vs everyday experience
What is the difference between empiricism and rationalism?
Experience vs reason
What does falsifiability mean?
A theory must be testable and potentially refutable
Objectivity and determinism
What is the difference between empirical and theoretical knowledge?
Evidence vs explanation
How did Ancient Greek thinkers contribute to the development of scientific thinking?
Rational inquiry and logical reasoning
What is Francis Bacon's main contribution to scientific methodology?
Induction, observation and experimentation
What is a scientific paradigm according to Thomas Kuhn?
Shared scientific framework
How does non-classical science differ from classical science?
Role of observer and instruments
What is the difference between a concept, a hypothesis and a theory?
Idea, testable proposition, systematic explanation
How did the Scientific Revolution change the way people understood nature?
Observation, experimentation and new scientific methods
How did Descartes use methodical doubt to establish reliable knowledge?
Doubt, reason and deduction
What is the difference between normal science and a scientific revolution?
Normal research vs paradigm change
How does the understanding of an object of study differ in classical, non-classical, and post-non-classical science?
Expected answer:
Classical science: the object is studied independently of the researcher; the influence of the observer is excluded.
Non-classical science: the role of the researcher, instruments and methods of observation is taken into account.
Post-non-classical science: the object is understood as a complex, self-developing system; the relationship between scientific knowledge, human values and social goals is considered.
Why does Chalmers argue that observation is not always neutral?
Theory influences observation
Can scientific knowledge ever be completely objective? Explain your position.
No, observations and interpretations can be influenced by assumptions
Descartes argues that reliable knowledge must begin with doubt. What is the role of methodical doubt in his philosophy, and how does he arrive at the idea that the thinking self exists?
Descartes uses systematic doubt to question all beliefs that could be false. He arrives at Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am): even if he doubts everything, the act of doubting proves that he exists as a thinking being.
According to Kuhn, what happens when anomalies accumulate and a scientific paradigm enters a crisis? Explain the process leading to a scientific revolution.
Anomalies challenge the existing paradigm. When they accumulate and cannot be adequately explained, a crisis develops. A new paradigm may emerge, replace the old one and transform scientific practice.
A researcher studies climate change, human behaviour and environmental policy as an interconnected system. Which type of scientific rationality is most relevant, and why?
Post-non-classical rationality
A researcher interviews 30 migrants and discovers that some experience social exclusion. Explain how the researcher can move from empirical observations to a theoretical explanation.
Data → concepts → hypothesis → theoretical explanation