key terms
A period of social and political unrest in colonial America.
The Great Upheaval
Religious revival emphasizing personal faith and emotional preaching.
The First Great Awakening (1730s-1740s)
Conflict between Britain and France (and their Native allies) in North America; Britain won but accrued massive debt, leading to increased taxation on colonies.
The Seven Years’ War (French and Indian War), 1754–1763
The first U.S. national government framework; created a weak central government with most power retained by the states, leading to difficulties in taxation, defense, and interstate disputes.
The Articles of Confederation (1781–1787)
7th U.S. President (1829–1837); known for expanding presidential power, promoting “Jacksonian democracy,” and enforcing policies like Indian removal.
Andrew Jackson
A 1675 revolt in Virginia against the colonial government over Native attacks and land issues.
Bacon’s Rebellion (1675)
Preacher who spread the First Great Awakening across the colonies.
George Whitefield (1714-1770)
Proposed by Benjamin Franklin for a unified colonial government to coordinate defense during the French and Indian War; rejected by colonies and Britain.
The Albany Plan (1754
The early years under the Articles of Confederation; marked by economic hardship, political instability, and fears that the United States might collapse.
The “critical period” (1781–1787)
Law signed by Andrew Jackson authorizing the forced relocation of Native American tribes from their lands east of the Mississippi River to territories west of it.
Indian Removal Act, 1830
Colonists adopting English culture, customs, and political ideas.
Anglicization
English philosopher who argued that governments exist based on a social contract with the people: citizens give up some freedoms for protection of natural rights (life, liberty, property). If the government fails, people have the right to overthrow it
John Locke (“social contract”)
British decree forbidding colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains to avoid conflict with Native Americans, angering settlers eager to expand.
Proclamation Line of 1763
First ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution (ratified 1791) guaranteeing individual liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and protection from government abuse.
The Bill of Rights
The forced march of the Cherokee people to present-day Oklahoma; thousands died from disease, starvation, and exposure during relocation.
The Cherokee Trail of Tears (1836–1838)
Immigrants from Scotland via Ireland who settled on the colonial frontier.
Scots-Irish
American Founding Father, principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and advocate for individual liberties and limited government.
Thomas Jefferson
Secret colonial group formed to resist British policies through protest, intimidation, and sometimes violent action (e.g., Stamp Act opposition).
“Sons of Liberty”
Agreement that enslaved people would count as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation purposes, balancing power between northern and southern states.
The Three-Fifths Compromise
Native American nations (Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, Seminole) in the Southeast considered “civilized” by Europeans because they adopted some European customs and agriculture.
The Five “civilized tribes
Growth of trade, markets, and consumer goods in 18th-century America.
The Consumer (Market) Revolution
Pamphlet that urged American colonists to break from Britain; presented independence as logical and necessary, widely influencing public opinion.
Thomas Paine, Common Sense (1776)
Clash between British soldiers and colonists in Boston; five colonists killed, inflaming anti-British sentiment.
The Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770)
Meeting of delegates from 12 states to revise the Articles; instead, they drafted a new Constitution establishing a stronger federal government with separation of powers.
Philadelphia Constitutional Convention of 1787
Law passed under President Thomas Jefferson that banned all U.S. trade with foreign countries, particularly Britain and France, in an attempt to avoid war and pressure them to respect American neutrality. The act severely hurt the U.S. economy and was widely unpopular.
Embargo Act (1807)