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a Spanish word that means "one who works with his arms," referring to a laborer, particularly a manual laborer, especially in the context of the Bracero Program.
What is bracero?
This was a federal agency established in 1865 to assist formerly enslaved people and poor whites in the South following the Civil War. The Bureau provided food, clothing, medical care, and established schools, offering legal assistance and mediating disputes between freedmen and employers. It also managed confiscated or abandoned lands, though its effectiveness was limited by funding constraints and resistance from white Southerners.
What is Freedmen’s Bureau?
a place where families were separated and individuals were denied entry into the United States
What is the Island of Tears
A German military strategy developed in 1905, intended to avoid a two-front war with France and Russia during World War I. The plan aimed for a quick victory against France by invading through Belgium and then turning eastward to face Russia.
What is the Schlieffen Plan?
What is Hoovervilles?
a men's suit characterized by a long, wide-lapelled coat with heavily padded shoulders and high-waisted, wide-legged, pegged trousers with narrow cuffs. It became a symbol of cultural pride and defiance, especially for pachuco culture, and was also associated with jazz and swing music.
What is a Zoot Suit?
It officially abolished slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime according to the National Archives (.gov). It was passed by Congress in 1865 and ratified the same year
What is the 13th Amendment?
A United States federal law that significantly impacted immigration policy and racial relations. It specifically prohibited the entry of Chinese laborers into the United States for a period of 10 years and denied Chinese residents the ability to become citizens. This law was the first major U.S. law to restrict immigration based on race, and it was rooted in racial prejudice and economic anxieties about Chinese workers.
What is the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882?
Passed in 1798, this made it a crime to "print, utter, or publish any false, scandalous, and malicious writing" about the U.S. government, the President, or the Congress.
What is the Sedition Act
a program established by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 to alleviate household unemployment by creating new unskilled jobs in local and state government.
What is FERA
What did the Sedition Act and propaganda have in common?
The Sedition Act and propaganda both aimed to control public opinion and influence behavior, but through different methods. The Sedition Act used legal restrictions on speech and the press to suppress dissent, while propaganda used persuasive messaging and artistic techniques to shape public support for a cause, such as the war effort.
What were some things being "reconstructed" during Reconstruction? In what way were they undergoing "reconstruction"?
The Southern States (Rebuilding the Union)
What was reconstructed: The former Confederate states had to be readmitted into the United States.
How: They had to rewrite their state constitutions, accept the end of slavery, and pledge loyalty to the Union.
This was about political reconstruction—deciding how and when these states could rejoin the U.S. government.
2. The U.S. Constitution and Laws
What was reconstructed: The legal framework of the country to include rights for newly freed African Americans.
How:
13th Amendment abolished slavery.
14th Amendment gave citizenship and equal protection.
15th Amendment gave Black men the right to vote.
These changed the definition of citizenship and rights in America.
3.Society and Race Relations
What was reconstructed: The social order, especially in the South.
How: Formerly enslaved people were now free, and Southern society had to figure out how to live with that.
Organizations like the Freedmen’s Bureau tried to support African Americans with education, jobs, and legal help.
But systems like Black Codes and later Jim Crow laws tried to block or reverse these changes.
4. The Southern Economy
What was reconstructed: The plantation-based, slave-powered economy had collapsed.
How:
New systems like sharecropping emerged, often trapping Black families in debt and poverty.
There were attempts to modernize agriculture and rebuild infrastructure, but it was a slow and uneven process.
5. Physical Infrastructure
What was reconstructed: Many Southern towns, cities, and railroads were destroyed during the Civil War.
How: Rebuilding meant physical labor, federal funding, and effort from local communities to bring life back to Southern land.
In Summary:
Reconstruction was about rebuilding the Union, redefining freedom and citizenship, and repairing a broken nation after slavery and war. It involved laws, society, politics, and the economy—and while it brought progress, it also sparked resistance and left many battles for equality unfinished.
What FACTORS would make a person want to be a Bird of Passage versus staying an immigrant in the US?
Factors That Made Someone a Bird of Passage:
Economic Motivation Only (Not Looking to Settle):
Many came to the U.S. just to earn money and then return to buy land or start a business back home. Their goal was temporary gain, not long-term life in America.
Strong Ties to Homeland:
If someone had a close family, property, or cultural identity they didn’t want to leave behind, they were more likely to return home after working in the U.S.
Harsh Living Conditions in the U.S.:
Poor housing (like tenements), dangerous factory jobs, or discrimination could push immigrants to decide life back home was better—even with fewer economic opportunities.
Lack of Assimilation or Belonging:
If immigrants faced nativism, language barriers, or racism, and didn’t feel welcomed, they were more likely to leave rather than fight to belong.
Unstable Job Opportunities:
If work dried up (like during a recession), temporary immigrants often left instead of staying and struggling.
🇺🇸 Factors That Made Someone Stay in the U.S. Permanently:
Escape from Danger or Persecution:
Immigrants fleeing violence, pogroms, or poverty often didn’t have a safe or stable home to return to. The U.S. offered security, even if life was hard.
Hope for the “American Dream”:
Many believed in long-term opportunities—education for their children, land ownership, or social mobility. That promise made them stay.
Family Reunification:
Once a few family members were in the U.S., others often followed, making it easier to settle and build a new life together.
Gradual Assimilation:
Learning English, finding a community (like ethnic neighborhoods or barrios), and getting better jobs made immigrants more likely to stay long-term.
Better Conditions than Home:
Even if life in the U.S. was hard, it might still have been better than conditions back home, especially after wars or economic decline.
In Short:
Birds of Passage = "I’ll work, save, and go home."
Stayers = "I’ll take the risk, build a life, and invest in the future here."
Whether someone stayed or returned depended on what they were running from, what they were hoping for, and whether the U.S. felt like a place worth fighting to belong to.
Why was Woodrow Wilson's League of Nations considered an "ambitious" plan at the time?
After the devastation of World War I, Wilson proposed the League as a global peacekeeping organization where countries could resolve conflicts through diplomacy instead of warfare.
The idea that nations could come together to collectively stop aggression was revolutionary—especially in an era where war was still seen as a natural tool of national power.
Wilson believed in collective security—that an attack on one nation should be considered an attack on all League members.
This meant countries would sacrifice some of their independence to take joint military or economic action, which was a bold and unfamiliar idea.
The U.S. had long followed a tradition of isolationism, avoiding entangling alliances (like Washington’s Farewell Address warned).
Wilson's plan would have put the U.S. into global leadership and responsibility, something many Americans weren’t ready for.
Wilson’s 14 Points emphasized fairness, open diplomacy, and national self-determination.
But after WWI, the Allied powers wanted punishment for Germany, not just peace. Wilson’s more idealistic vision clashed with the harsh realities of politics.
The League had no military force of its own. It relied on member nations to enforce decisions.
The idea that diplomacy alone could prevent future wars was hopeful—but many saw it as naive given how power politics usually worked.
Wilson’s League of Nations was ambitious because it tried to rebuild world order through cooperation, peace, and justice—not war or revenge. But it was ahead of its time, faced opposition at home, and ultimately the U.S. didn’t even join it—showing just how bold (and politically risky) the idea really was.
Explain how the Depression affected how 1. we look at our modern day economy and 2. how our modern day economy is run.
1. How We Look At Our Modern-Day Economy (Mindset Shifts)
Greater Awareness of Economic Risk:
Before the Depression, people believed the economy would always bounce back on its own. The crash shattered that idea. Now, people watch things like unemployment, inflation, and the stock market closely because they know the economy can break down if left unchecked.
Expectation of Government Help:
Americans came to believe that the government has a duty to step in when times get tough. Today, people expect unemployment insurance, food assistance, Social Security, and stimulus checks during crises—ideas born from the Depression and the New Deal.
Fear of Another Collapse:
The Depression left a long-lasting caution about reckless investing, unstable banks, and lack of regulation. That’s why financial crises (like in 2008) cause big public concern and fast government action.
2. How Our Modern-Day Economy is Run (Structural Changes)
Government Regulation:
Agencies like the SEC (regulates Wall Street) and FDIC (insures bank deposits) were created during the Depression—and they still operate today. These protect consumers and prevent financial panic.
Safety Net Programs:
Programs like Social Security, Medicare, and welfare systems were created or expanded to protect people from total poverty if they lose their job or retire.
Federal Reserve Power:
The Federal Reserve learned to play a much bigger role—raising or lowering interest rates to manage inflation and stabilize the economy. During the Depression, it didn’t do enough. Now, it acts quickly in emergencies.
Stimulus Spending:
The idea that the government should spend money during a downturn (even if it means going into debt) comes from economist John Maynard Keynes and FDR’s New Deal policies. This “pump priming” approach is used today to restart stalled economies.
What were two benefits and two drawbacks of the Dawes Act? Explain. One sentence per benefit and drawback.
Benefit 1: The Dawes Act gave Native American families individual plots of land, which was intended to encourage self-sufficiency and farming.
Benefit 2: It allowed some Native Americans to gain U.S. citizenship if they accepted allotments and assimilated.
Drawback 1: It broke up tribal lands and weakened Native communities by forcing them to abandon communal living.
Drawback 2: Much of the land was taken by settlers or sold off, leading to massive loss of Native-controlled territory.
What sort of issues arose from the rapid westward expansion? How did these issues come about?
Rapid westward expansion led to several major issues, including the displacement of Native American tribes, increased violence and conflict, environmental destruction, and lawlessness in boomtowns. These problems arose because settlers, backed by government policies like the Homestead Act and Indian Removal Act, rushed into lands that were already inhabited or not fully explored. The demand for land, resources, and railroads led to broken treaties, warfare, and forced relocation of Native peoples. Additionally, towns sprang up quickly without stable governments or infrastructure, leading to corruption, crime, and dangerous working conditions, especially in mining and railroad labor.
What made the 1990s the “Information Age,” and how did technology change lives?
The 1990s became known as the “Information Age” because of the explosive growth of digital technology, especially personal computers and the internet. For the first time, ordinary people could access vast amounts of information instantly from home, school, or work. Email, websites, and search engines like Yahoo and Google revolutionized communication, learning, and business. Technology also changed daily life by speeding up how people shopped, worked, and connected—introducing things like online banking, e-commerce, and instant messaging. As more homes got connected, people began living in a more global, fast-paced, and digitally influenced world.
What single THING had the greatest effect on the outcome of WWI? Why?
Industrialized military technology had the greatest effect on the outcome of WWI because it transformed the scale and style of warfare. New inventions like machine guns, poison gas, and artillery made the war more deadly and prolonged. This technology forced armies into trench warfare, causing massive casualties without quick victories. In the end, it was the brutal toll of these weapons—not a single battle—that wore nations down and determined who could endure longest.
Absolutely — while industrialized military technology is a strong answer, there are several other compelling “things” that could be argued as having the greatest effect on the outcome of WWI. Here are a few strong contenders, each with its own four-sentence persuasive version:
1. Nationalism
Nationalism pushed nations to enter and stay in the war with intense pride and unwillingness to compromise. It fueled recruitment, propaganda, and even hatred of the enemy. This made the war more personal and emotional, making peace nearly impossible. In the end, nationalism turned a political crisis into a massive, deadly global conflict.
2. Trench Warfare
Trench warfare shaped the entire experience and outcome of WWI by creating a static, grinding war of attrition. It led to horrifying conditions, high death tolls, and few territorial gains. The war became about who could survive longer, not who could win faster. Trench warfare drained resources, morale, and time—reshaping the way war was fought and ended.
3. Propaganda
Propaganda controlled public opinion and maintained national support for the war even as it dragged on. It encouraged enlistment, demonized enemies, and shaped how citizens viewed the war’s purpose. Without it, many nations might have faced internal collapse or rebellion. Propaganda kept the war machine running by controlling minds as well as armies.
4. Global Alliances
The alliance system turned a local conflict into a worldwide war, forcing countries into battle whether they were ready or not. It created a chain reaction that drew in nations across Europe, Asia, and the Americas. This web of obligations made the war larger, longer, and harder to stop. The structure of alliances meant the war’s outcome affected the entire world—not just the original fighters.
5. Total War Economics
Mobilizing entire national economies for war made WWI different from earlier conflicts. Civilians were involved in rationing, factory work, and war bond drives, meaning the war was fought on every front—military and home front alike. This full-scale economic shift determined which countries could outlast the others. Victory went not just to the strongest army, but the strongest economy.
Why was there such great interest in suppressing the African-American vote, and how was it done?
There was great interest in suppressing the African-American vote because many white leaders wanted to maintain political and social control in the South after Reconstruction. Allowing African Americans to vote threatened the existing power structure and challenged segregation and discrimination laws. Suppression was done through tactics like poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses, intimidation, and violence. These methods effectively prevented many African Americans from registering to vote or casting ballots, keeping them politically powerless for decades.
From the Gilded Age to the Digital Age, how has technology shaped American identity and opportunity?
➤ Compare the light bulb, the assembly line, the atomic bomb, the personal computer, the internet, and social media.
➤ How did each innovation reshape work, war, or daily life?
➤ How has technology increased—or threatened—freedom, truth, or power?
Technology has deeply shaped American identity and opportunity by transforming how people live, work, and connect. The light bulb revolutionized daily life by extending productive hours and improving quality of life. The assembly line made mass production possible, creating jobs but also changing the nature of work into repetitive tasks. The atomic bomb ended World War II but introduced the threat of nuclear war, forever changing global power dynamics and national security.
The personal computer brought computing power to individuals, enabling new kinds of work, creativity, and communication. The internet connected millions worldwide, revolutionizing access to information, commerce, and social interaction. Social media transformed how people share ideas and organize movements but also raised concerns about misinformation and privacy.
Each innovation reshaped society by increasing productivity, accelerating communication, and expanding opportunities. However, technology has also threatened freedom through surveillance and control, challenged truth with misinformation, and concentrated power among those who control these tools. Overall, technology both empowers and complicates the American experience.
1) How are things like xenophobia, nationalism, patriotism, and isolationism affected by propaganda? 2) Explain the process by which you would use propaganda to advance the rights of a certain group or change the thinking of a certain group for TWO different time periods that we studied. Do not forget to consider how mass media or popular culture might play into your answers.
Propaganda has the power to stir intense emotions like fear, pride, and loyalty, which directly fuels ideas like xenophobia, nationalism, patriotism, and isolationism. It can exaggerate threats or glorify certain values to convince people to act, whether it’s fighting a war or rejecting immigrants. During times of crisis, propaganda often paints outsiders as dangerous or un-American, increasing xenophobia and isolationist thinking. At the same time, it can boost nationalism and patriotism by celebrating one’s country as superior or morally right.
To promote civil rights in the 1960s, I would use propaganda through mass media like televised news, posters, and music to highlight peaceful protests and the violence faced by activists. By showing real images of injustice and powerful messages of hope and equality, public sympathy would grow and pressure lawmakers to act. Popular culture—through soul music, radio, and film—could be used to make civil rights stories more mainstream and relatable.
In contrast, during World War I, I would use posters, pamphlets, and patriotic songs to shift immigrant workers’ loyalty toward the U.S. war effort. Emphasizing shared American values and portraying support as a way to earn full acceptance would help reshape public perception of these communities. Mass media at the time could show immigrants as valuable, loyal contributors, not outsiders, helping reduce suspicion and increase unity.
How has the idea of the “American Dream” changed across different eras in U.S. history?
➤ How did immigration, industrialization, or war influence people’s access to that dream?
➤ Who was left out—and how did they respond?
➤ In what ways did government policy, protest, or economic shifts redefine what the dream meant?
The idea of the “American Dream” has shifted from owning land and achieving basic economic stability to including broader goals like equal opportunity, civil rights, and personal fulfillment. Immigration brought millions seeking a better life, but many faced harsh conditions and discrimination that limited their access to the dream. Industrialization created jobs and wealth for some, but also harsh working conditions and inequality, leaving many workers, especially immigrants and minorities, struggling. Wars often disrupted lives but also opened new opportunities through military service and economic growth afterward.
Groups left out included African Americans, Native Americans, women, and immigrants who faced legal barriers and social exclusion. Many responded by protesting, organizing labor unions, and fighting for civil rights and voting rights. Government policies like the New Deal expanded the dream by creating social safety nets, while civil rights laws pushed for inclusion. Economic shifts, like the rise of the middle class after WWII, broadened the dream, but challenges like recessions and inequality continue to reshape what it means today.
How did the 1920s and World War II reshape women’s roles in American society?
➤ How did protest, policy, or propaganda help or hurt those changes?
➤ What part did the media or public image of women play?
➤ Did these shifts increase women's power—or just temporarily fill gaps?
The 1920s and World War II reshaped women’s roles by expanding their participation in the workforce and public life. In the 1920s, the women’s suffrage movement succeeded with the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to vote, and the flapper image challenged traditional norms of behavior. During World War II, women took on jobs in factories, offices, and the military to support the war effort while men fought overseas. Protest and policy, like the women’s vote and wartime labor needs, pushed these changes forward, while propaganda—such as “Rosie the Riveter”—encouraged women to work but often still emphasized their temporary role.
The media played a huge role by shaping public perceptions of women as capable workers but also reinforcing traditional femininity. While these shifts gave women more power and independence, many of the wartime gains were rolled back after the war when men returned and women were encouraged to return to domestic roles. Overall, these changes opened new opportunities but often temporarily filled gaps rather than permanently transforming gender roles.
How does the Civil Rights Movement connect to earlier and later struggles for equality in the U.S.?
➤ Draw connections to Reconstruction, Jim Crow laws, the Harlem Renaissance, Civil Rights laws, Black Power, and modern activism.
➤ How did tactics change over time—and how did the media influence success?
➤ What does this long fight for justice reveal about how America changes?
The Civil Rights Movement connects to earlier struggles like Reconstruction, which aimed to rebuild the South and secure rights for freed slaves, but ended with the rise of Jim Crow laws that enforced segregation and inequality. The Harlem Renaissance celebrated Black culture and challenged racist stereotypes, setting the stage for later activism. Civil Rights laws in the 1960s, like the Civil Rights Act and Voting Rights Act, were major legal victories that built on past efforts. The Black Power movement introduced more radical demands for racial pride and self-determination, influencing later social justice movements. Today’s activism continues this legacy, using new tools like social media to fight systemic racism.
Tactics evolved from legal battles and political participation during Reconstruction to nonviolent protests, sit-ins, and marches during the Civil Rights era, and later to more assertive, sometimes militant, approaches with Black Power. The media played a crucial role by broadcasting protests and police violence, swaying public opinion and gaining national support. This long fight shows that America changes slowly and unevenly, requiring persistent struggle, adaptation, and the courage of many generations to push toward greater justice.