Week 1/2
Week 2/3
Week 3
Week 3
Week 4
100

There is an intimate relationship between ______ and _____ in all biological systems.

This relationship is well studied in the shape of the gut microvili.  Why does it have this shape?

Structure, function

Elongated folds of tissue, more surface area to absorb nutrients from food.

100

The electrochemical gradient and changes in ___________ of the cell membrane result in changes of membrane potential.

permeability

100

The release of neurotransmitter is called a __________ which occurs at the axon terminal.

Neurotransmitters are carried in ___________ until they are released into the synapse.

What triggers the exocytosis of NT into the synapse?


chemical synapse


synaptic vesicles

Depolarization causes Ca+ channel to open, which allow Ca+ to flood into the terminal and initiate exocytosis of NTs.



100

Ascending tracts carry __________ signals

afferent

100

____________ is determined by integration of afferent signals

Perception

200

Processes including growth, reproduction, and movement all require _________.  How is this obtained?

Energy

Chemical energy is obtained through eating.

200

The resting potential of a cell is

-70mV

200

After NTs are relased into the synaptic cleft, what are some possible fates?

1. NTs bind and cause an EPSP or IPSP

2. NTs are broken down by enzymes

3. NTs diffuse out of the synaptic cleft

4. NTs are brought back into terminal and reused 

200

Descending tracts carry _________ signals

efferent

200

Somatic sense iclude 

touch, temperature, nociception.
300

What two systems assist the human body with coordinating, integrating, and communicating within itself.  

Endocrine system: Hormones are released into the blood, disperse, and act upon target cells or tissues.


Nervous system: Neurotransmitters/neurohormones are released and carry info to and from CNS.

300

Define hyperpolarization, repolarization, and depolarization.

Hyperpolarization:  Increase in negative charge within cell

Repolarization: returning to -70mV from above or below threshold.

Depolarization: Decrease in negative charge within cell

300

Using Acetylcholine as a model NT and nicotinic vs muscarinic receptors, explain the differences between ionotropic and metabotropic receptors.

Ionotropic receptors are protein channels that directly bind to NTs and open.  Acetylcholine activates the nicotinic receptors in the brain and directly opens.

Metabotropic receptorsare G-protein coupled receptors which ultimately open an ion channel. Acetylcholine NTs act on muscarinic receptors, which aren't channels themselves.

300

The spinal cord contains integration center much like the brain and can cause these quick reactions.

give an example of this

reflexes.

knee-jerk reaction

300

The amount of area in sensory cortex is proportional to ________

sensitivity

400

In addition to the nervous system and endcrine system, how else does the body communicate within itself?

Gap junction: form direct cytoplasmic connections to and from adjacent cells (sharing nutriets etc.)

Contact dependent signals: require interaction between membrane bound molecules on two cells.

Autocrine signals: Chemicals that are released and act upon the cell that released them.

Paracrine signals:  Chemicals that are released and act upon neighboring cells.


400

The ________ is the smallest functional unit of the nervous system.

neuron

400

Unused acetylcholine is broken down by __________ and returned to the terminal to be recycled.

acetylcholinesterase

400

This structure in the brain consists of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

This structure connects the spinal cord to the brain.

Brain stem

400

_____________ are sensitive to less than body temp, and up to 45 degress celcius, then ___________ take over.

Thermoreceptors

Nociceptors


500

Define homeostasis

 the state of steady internal physical and chemical conditions maintained by living systems

the maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment around a “set point.”

500

Dendrites are responsible for ___________________.

The _________ integrates incoming signals.

The axon conducts _____________.

The pre-synaptic terminal is responsible for the ____________

Receiving chemical signals (input) from post-synaptic neuron.

Cell body

Electrical signals (action potential)

output of NT

500

The __________ consists of the brain and spinal cord.

CNS

500

Why does the left side of your brain control the right side of your body?

Tracts cris-cross in the pyramids of the medulla

500

Special senses include

Smell (olfaction)

Tastse (gustation) 

hearing

sight

600

____________serves to reduce the original stimulus and is critically important for maintaining homeostasis. 

Negative feedback

600

Changes in membrane potential that occur in the dendrites and cell body are called____________ which degrade overtime.

If the graded potential ___________ the cell to -55mV, an ______________ is triggered in the __________

graded potentials.

depolarizes

action potential 

axon hillock

600

_______ are the cells in the nervous system that do not propagate electrical signals.

There are 6 types.

glial cells

600

The _______ processes sensory information and coordinates movement.

"Little brain"

cerebellum

600

Taste receptor are chemoreceptors

and are responsible for sour, salty, sweet, bitter, and umami

700

Define positive feedback

positive feedback refers to the body increasing the original stimulus and keeps moving the body away from a set point.  NOT HOMEOSTATIC

700

Unlike graded potentials, ___________ do not vary in amplitude.

Intensity corresponds to __________, which correlates to the duration in which the cell maintains depolarization at -55mV.

action potentials

frequency


700

These two cell types are similar in that they both myelinate neurons, but do so in different ways.  What are they and how are they different?

Schwann cells (PNS) myelinate a single axon

Oliigodendrocytes (CNS) myelinate multiple axons at the same time.

700

The diencephalon is composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus.  The thalamus is responsible for __________________and the hypothalamus is important in ____________

Integration and relaying signals to other sections of the brain


The endocrine system, regulation of homeostasis

700

Hearing occurs via integration of afferent signals due to __________

Mechanoreceptors

800

_______________ control refers to two systems that control a parameter in opposite directions.  This allows for better control over the parameter.

Antagonistic

800

Subthreshold potentials do not trigger action potentials, whereas ________ do.

suprathreshold potentials.

800

__________ provide nutrients and absorb waste and contribute to the blood brain barrier.

Astrocytes

800

What are some functions of the cerebrum?

"human-ess"

complex information processing, including cognition, perception, memory, motivation, mood, learning, memory, and language.

800

Explain hearing

Sound waves enter the ear canal, pass through the eardrum and into the middle ear where they vibrate three small bones that allow sound waves to be converted into fluid waves within the tectorial membrane within the cochlea.  These waves them stimulate mechanoreceptors called hair cells.  When the waves cause the hair cell to bend towards the tallest sterocillia, channels open, depolorizes cell and causes a release of NTs.  When waves bend towards shortstereocillia, channels close, no action potential, no NTs released.

900
Provide an example for antagonistic control

Sweating/Shivering

Sympathetic/Parasympathetic Neural pathways

900

If the sum of two graded potentials arising from two separate synaptic neurons is -55mV and action potential is triggered.  This is termed ________

Spatial summation

900

Microglia are cells that cleanup damaged cells and foreign material from CNS and are modified _________ cells.

immune

900

PET scans show where the brain is working, how?

How are MRS different?

Shows the uptake of radiolabeled glucose.  More glucose being used=more active

MRI's look at blood flow, more blood flow to a certain area=more active 

900

Explain seeing

Seeing is due to photoreceptors, rods (low light vision) cones (color vision)


1000

Fever is not an example of loss of homeostasis. Why?

The 'set point' has changed.  Fever serves to reduce infection.

1000
Define temporal summation

Temporal summation occurs when two graded potentials from one post-synaptic neuron occur close together in time and allow depolarization to occur.

1000

Satellite cells are located only in the ______ and provide support for cell bodies in ganglia.

PNS

1000

There are two types of sensory receptors. Both send affarent signals to the brain, how do they differ?

1st type: Stimulus acts directly on the receptor protein immediately depolarizing a neuron.

2nd: Stimulus acts on cell that released NT onto neuron and signal is tranduced.

1000

The __________ division of the Peripheral nervous system is composed of the ________ and somatic motor

Efferent

Autonomic

1100

Another mechanism for maintaining homeostasis is __________, which is an anticipatory mechanism meant to minimize fluctuations during regulation.

Give an example of this

feedforward control

Drooling when we smell/see food.

1100

What are the three protein channels that are important in generating an action potential?

Na+/k+ pump: responsible for creating electrochemical gradient, always working.

Voltage gated Na+ channel: opens @-55mV, closes at peak depolarization @+30mV due to inactivation gate, allows for Na+ to enter cell then closes at peak depolarization.

Voltage gates K+ channel: slowly opens at -55mV, fully opens during repolarization, begins closing during hyperpolarization and close fully when cell returns to resting potential.


1100

What are ependymal cells and what do they do?

Ependymal cells create the ependyma, the semipermeable epithelial membrane between cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid.

1100

What are the four types of sensory receptors that humans have?

chemoreceptor

photoreceptor

mechanoreceptor

thermoreceptor

1100

The autonomic nervous system is governed through antagonistic control via the ____________ and ___________ 

sympathetic

parasympathetic


1200

There are two fluid compartments in the body, what are they and explain their ion concentrations.

Intracellular fluid vs Extracellular fluid

Intracellular fluid is composed of high concentrations of k+ and proteins and is inside cells.

Extracellulr fluid is all the fluid outside of the cells including the interstitial fluid containing high concentrations of Na+ and Cl-, and blood plasma containing high concentrations of k+, Na+, and proteins.

1200

The VG Na+ channel actually has two gates.

The _________ gate opens at -55mV

The _________ gate closes at +30mV

Activation

Inactivation (ball in cup)

1200

What two glial cell types are only found in the PNS?

Schwann cells, satellite cells

1200

Most receptors are sensitive to multiple forms of stimulus energy but are most sensitive to the ______________

adequate stimulus

1200

What are the anatomical sifferences between sympathetic and parasympathetic pre and post ganglions?

Sympathetic have short pre-ganglionic neurons and long post ganglionic neurons

Parasympathetic have long pre-ganglionic neurons and short post ganglionic neurons

1300

Due to these differences in ion concentration, the fluid compartments in the body are in __________________.

How is this maintained?

Chemical disequilibrium


maintained via Na+/K+ ATP-ase which pumps ions against concentration gradient.

1300

The neuron cannot be activated during the ___________.

refractory period

1300

_________ is related to processing and integration and is not myelinated whereas ________ is highly myelinated and responsible for signal transduction within the CNS

grey matter

white matter

1300

Receptors have receptive fields.  The smaller the receptive field the ______ sensitive an area is.

more


1300

Both sympathetic and parasympathetic pre-ganglionic neurons release Ach onto nicotinic receptors, but the difference lies in the post-ganglionic neurons where sympathetic release _____________ onto adrenergic receptors and parasympth release Ach onto _________ receptors

norepnephrine

cholinergic

1400

The concentration of solutes within each fluid compartment is _______mOsm/L

The fluid compartments are said to be in _______________

~300

osmotic equilibrium

1400

What are two physical factors that affect impulse conduction?

Diameter of axon enables faster signal movement because the larger the diameter of the axon, the less likely the incoming ions will run into something that could bounce them back.  Think about water flowing through a giant tube vs a small tube.  

Myelination from Schwann cells (PN) and Oligodendrocytes (CN)

1400

The CNS is bathing in __________ which provides protection against damage.

Cerebrospinal fluid CSF

1400

The CNS must integrate afferents and distinguish

The type of stimulus, the location of the stimulus, intensity of the stimulus, and the duration.

1500

What happens to a cell in a hypertonic solution, isotonic solution, and hypotonic solution?

Hypertonic:  Water moves out of the cell causing it to burst.

Isotonic:  Cell is happy.

Hypotonic:  Water moves into the cell causing it to burst.

1500

Depolarization jumps down the axon in the ____________, which is termed _________

nodes of ranvier

saltatory conduction

1500

These cells have long foot like projections that form a tight barrier between capillaries within the CNS and the brain.

Neurons are protected from blood infections because these cells prevent leakiness.

Astrocytes

1500

__________ are useful for monitoring levels of a given parameter whereas and adapt slowly ________adapt quickly and are useful for determining acute changes in a parameter

tonic receptors

phasic receptors