Hormones vs Neurons
What is the main difference in how endocrine signals and neural signals are delivered to target tissues?
Endocrine: hormones travel through bloodstream broadly; Nervous: signals travel along neurons to specific targets
Which gland produces melatonin and helps regulate circadian rhythms?
Pineal Gland
Which hemisphere is most commonly specialized for language in right-handed people?
Left Hemisphere
How many chromosomes are normally present in most human somatic cells?
46 (23 pairs)
Which gland's insufficient insulin production causes diabetes?
Pancreas (beta cells in islets of Langerhans)
Which signaling system generally acts faster: nervous system or endocrine system? Give one reason why
Nervous system; electrical signaling and synaptic transmission act in milliseconds
What gland is often called the "master gland" because it secretes hormones that regulate other endocrine glands?
Pituitary Gland
What is contralateral representation? Give a brief example
Each hemisphere largely controls the opposite side of body function; e.g., left motor cortex controls right-side movement.
What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?
Genotype = genetic makeup; Phenotype = observable traits resulting from genotype × environment.
What is goiter and which nutrient deficiency commonly causes it?
Goiter = enlarged thyroid; commonly from iodine deficiency
Name one chemical that can act as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone.
Epinephrine/norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
Define negative feedback in hormone regulation in one sentence
A rise in a hormone's effect reduces further secretion of that hormone (or a related releasing factor) to restore balance.
Name two research methods used to study lateralization or brain function.
PET/fMRI, TMS/EBS, split-brain studies, lesion studies, EEG/brain waves, dichotic listening
Define nondisjunction and give one possible outcome
Nondisjunction: failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis; can cause gametes with extra or missing chromosomes (e.g., trisomy).
Name the chromosomal condition caused by three copies of chromosome 21
Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)
Explain why hormones can affect many tissues even if only a few cells release them
Hormones circulate in blood and can bind to any cell with the correct receptor.
Name two organs/tissues that help break down hormones (one organ and one general mechanism).
Liver (organ) breaks down many hormones; enzymes in blood degrade some amino-acid–derived hormones
In split-brain patients, an object shown only to the left visual field (processed by right hemisphere) is typically: (a) named verbally, (b) pointed to with left hand, or (c) both? Explain briefly
(b) Pointed to with left hand — right hemisphere can perceive but usually cannot produce speech to name it.
Explain why identical (monozygotic) twins are not necessarily exactly the same in personality or ability — give two contributing factors
Environmental differences (nutrition, education, experiences) and epigenetic changes; also random recombination and gene expression variability
Explain one long-term health effect that chronic high cortisol (long-term stress) can have on the body
Chronic high cortisol can suppress immune function, increase abdominal fat, impair memory, and raise risk for metabolic disease.
Some neural signals produce long-lasting effects (e.g., neuromodulators). Describe one mechanism that can make neurotransmitter effects last longer than a fraction of a second
Examples: activation of second-messenger cascades, modulation of gene transcription, or prolonged receptor activation/neuromodulators.
Describe how the hypothalamus links neural input to endocrine responses, giving one specific hormone example.
Hypothalamus secretes releasing/inhibiting hormones (e.g., TRH stimulates pituitary TSH) and contains neurosecretory neurons that release ADH/oxytocin to the posterior pituitary.
Explain how transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can help infer function of a specific brain region.
TMS temporarily disrupts or enhances activity in a targeted cortical region; behavioral changes during stimulation suggest that region contributes to the tested function
Describe polygenic inheritance and give one example of a human trait that is polygenic
Many genes contribute additively to a trait (continuous variation); example: height or intelligence (complex traits).
Describe ethical considerations schools should keep in mind when teaching about genetic screening and chromosomal testing
Respect privacy and consent, avoid stigmatizing language, provide counseling/support, explain limits of prediction, and be culturally sensitive