Theories
Don Zimmerman & Candace West
What are the three 'D' discourses in gendered language?
- Deficit
- Dominance
- Difference
What is an unmarked term?
The normal/neutral form of a word. Most unmarked terms are male.
Producing redundancy in meaning by saying the same thing twice.
What is polari?
A form of spoken slang/language used primarily in the United Kingdom among the gay subculture.
Name two features of "women's language" according to Lakoff.
Hedges
Tag Questions
Super-Polite Forms
"Empty" Adjectives
Intensifiers
Apologies
Rising Intonation
According to Tannen, what two styles do men and women have in conversation?
Men - "Report" talk
Women - "Rapport" talk
What is Rising Intonation?
Making a statement sound like a question.
What is homophobia?
An irrational fear of or discrimination against the LGBTQ+ community.
Give two examples of a marked term.
- Lioness
- Actress
Summarise the Difference theory.
- Men and women speak differently because they've been socialized into different subcultures with different communication goals, values.
Give two criticisms of the deficit theory.
'Armchair study', unreliable.
- No data, just observations.
- Bias and stereotypes.
- Closed-circle of 'participants', doesn't apply to everyone.
- **O'Barr & Atkins = critiqued her theory.
What is intersectionality?
Overlapping social categories shaping experience
What is the meaning of androcentric?
male-centred
How are men vs women represented through language?
Men -> Loud, Dominant, Slang, Swearing, Interrupting.
Women -> Quiet, Submissive, Standard english, Soft tone, Polite.
Summarise Judith Butler’s theory of performativity.
Gender is something that we 'do' not something we inheretently 'are'
Summarise the Courtroom study and explain how does the study challenges Lakoff’s Deficit Theory?
They studied courtroom language for, observing a wide range of speakers and looked for Lakoff's features. These features were not used by all women.
Lakoff said women’s language shows weakness, but this study shows it is actually about power, not gender.
What is a language variable?
Contextual factor that can influence speech and writing.
What is overt and covert prestige? Give an example.
overt prestige (seeking status by using the "correct," standard, high-status forms)
covert prestige (seeking status by not using the "correct" forms, showing group solidarity, toughness, or rebellion against the standard).
Overt = "I am not going"
Covert = "I ain't going"
What claim was Lakoff making about "Women's" language and a woman's role in society?
The way women speak reflects and reinforces their lower social status in society.
Summarise the Fronted /S/ Theory.
Often called the "gay lisp"
- When male-presenting: The sound is stigmatised as "sissy" or weak.
- When in drag: The visual transformation re-baptises the sound. It becomes "fierce" and powerful.
Summarise the Theory Of Perfomativity.
- Gender is something that we 'do' not something we inheretently 'are'
- Daily choices, such as clothing, makeup, behaviours and langaguge help construct this.
What does Effiminate mean?
Having characteristics regarded as typical of a woman.
What is the purpose of polari and why is it not used today?
Used as protection from possible homophobes.
Not used today because of the decriminalisation of homosexuality.
How does the dominance theory and difference theory differ from eachother?
Dominance theory - Evidence of power is shown through interruptions (not specifically linked to gender, but to power). However, this still reflects the patriarchal society.
Difference theory - Men and women speak differently because they've been socialized into different subcultures with different communication goals, values.