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What is the sequence of an action potential from beginning to rest?
What is the difference between absolute and relative refractory periods?
True or False: When dealing with the all or none law action potentials are frequency coded and all have the same level of depolarization.
Depolarization, Repolarizaction, and Hyperpolarization.
Absolute occurs during depolarization and Relative happens during hyperpolarization.
True
What is the maximum depolarization of an axon in mV?
What is the number in mV for hyperpolarization of a membrane?
Explain the process of an action potential and what goes on within the membrane. (Use:sodium, potassium, threshold, repolarization, depolarization, hyperpolarization)
+30 mV
-90mV
I will give an elaboration
Using G proteins and cAMP, explain which type of hormones (lipid-soluble or water-soluble) use this signaling pathway and identify the molecule that provides energy for the G protein.
Water-soluble hormones use G protein and cAMP signaling pathways because they cannot pass through the cell membrane. Instead, they bind to receptors on the surface of the cell. This activates a G protein, which uses GTP as its energy source. When GTP binds to the G protein, it activates the protein so it can stimulate the enzyme adenylyl cyclase. Adenylyl cyclase then converts ATP into cAMP, which acts as a second messenger that triggers responses inside the cell.
Describe why at resting membrane potential cells have a negative internal chance and an unequal distribution of ions.
Inside the cell there are many negatively charged anions that cannot leave the cell. These negative charges attract positively charged potassium ions (K⁺) and help keep more potassium inside the cell, contributing to a concentration gradient where potassium is higher inside than outside. At the same time, the Sodium–Potassium Pumpworks to maintain this unequal distribution by pumping 3 sodium ions (Na⁺) out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell using ATP. This activity helps maintain both the ion gradients and the negative internal charge of the cell at resting membrane potential.
What is the difference between up regulation and down regulation and what do the both contribute to?
Up regulation has reuptake proteins on glial cells to help take in excess neurotransmitters and down regulation is less receptor proteins on the post synaptic to prevent neural activation.
They both contribute to neurotransmission
In regards to chemical messengers which are local and non local?
Which messenger is secreted from the same organ as their target cell?
Which chemical messenger is secreted from the pre to post synaptic neuron?
Paracrine Regulator (Local), Neurotransmitters (Local), and Hormones (Non-Local).
Paracrine Regulators
Neurotransmitters
What cell is responsible for phagocytosis in the CNS?
What are the two cells that are responsible for insulation in the CNS and PNS?
Explain why astrocytes are important in regards to the nervous system?
Microglia
CNS: Oligodendrocytes
PNS: Schwann Cells
Astrocytes are important in the nervous system because they maintain the chemical environment, support the blood-brain barrier, and aid in neurotransmission.
What is the monoamine we use for behavior and reward?
What is the difference between retrograde and anterograde.
What is a retrograde neurotransmitter?
Dopamine
Retrograde is a signal going from Dendrite/Axon to the Cell body.
Anterograde is a signal going from the Cell Body to Dendrite/Axon
Endocannabinoids
True or False the First step of an action potential is a stimulus And the last step is potassium channels opening causing hyperpolarization.
False: The first step of an action potential is sodium channels opening because this allows Na⁺ to rush into the cell and start depolarization, and the last step is potassium channels closing because this stops K⁺ from leaving, allowing the membrane to return to its resting potential.
True or False: Ligand gated ion channels are involved with repolarization and allow Calcium to diffuse in and then allows vesicles to secrete neurotransmitters from the postsynaptic neuron to the presynaptic neuron.
What is the main excitatory NT in the brain?
What are the main inhibitory NT in the brain?
How are EPSPs and IPSPs significant to action potentials?
Glutamate
Glycine and GABA
EPSPs depolarize the neuron (making it more positive), bringing it closer to the threshold, while IPSPs hyperpolarize the neuron (making it more negative), keeping it below the threshold.
What is the name of the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine?
What does it break it into?
Acetylcholinesterase
Acetate and Choline
What are your four types of hormones?
What are your 4 types of neurotransmitters?
Which function as both a neurotransmitter and a hormone?
Steroids, Amines, Glycoproteins, Polypeptides/Proteins.
Cholinergic, Amines, Amino Acids, Polypeptides/Proteins
Amines, and Polypeptides/Proteins
What is the difference between long term potentiation and long term depression?
LTP: A strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons, usually caused by repeated or strong stimulation of the presynaptic neuron
LTD: A weakening of synaptic connections, usually caused by low-frequency stimulation or reduced activity.
True or False: Action potential threshold is met by sodium diffusing into the cell.
True or False: Threshold must be met at the ligand gated channels to form an action potential?
True or False threshold is typically met at -70 mV.
True
False Threshold must be met at the axon hillock to produce an action potential
False threshold is met at -50mV